Abstract
Massive stars, at least \(\sim10\) times more massive than the Sun, have two key properties that make them the main drivers of evolution of star clusters, galaxies, and the Universe as a whole. On the one hand, the outer layers of massive stars are so hot that they produce most of the ionizing ultraviolet radiation of galaxies; in fact, the first massive stars helped to re-ionize the Universe after its Dark Ages. Another important property of massive stars are the strong stellar winds and outflows they produce. This mass loss, and finally the explosion of a massive star as a supernova or a gamma-ray burst, provide a significant input of mechanical and radiative energy into the interstellar space. These two properties together make massive stars one of the most important cosmic engines: they trigger the star formation and enrich the interstellar medium with heavy elements, that ultimately leads to formation of Earth-like rocky planets and the development of complex life. The study of massive star winds is thus a truly multidisciplinary field and has a wide impact on different areas of astronomy.
In recent years observational and theoretical evidences have been growing that these winds are not smooth and homogeneous as previously assumed, but rather populated by dense “clumps”. The presence of these structures dramatically affects the mass loss rates derived from the study of stellar winds. Clump properties in isolated stars are nowadays inferred mostly through indirect methods (i.e., spectroscopic observations of line profiles in various wavelength regimes, and their analysis based on tailored, inhomogeneous wind models). The limited characterization of the clump physical properties (mass, size) obtained so far have led to large uncertainties in the mass loss rates from massive stars. Such uncertainties limit our understanding of the role of massive star winds in galactic and cosmic evolution.
Supergiant high mass X-ray binaries (SgXBs) are among the brightest X-ray sources in the sky. A large number of them consist of a neutron star accreting from the wind of a massive companion and producing a powerful X-ray source. The characteristics of the stellar wind together with the complex interactions between the compact object and the donor star determine the observed X-ray output from all these systems. Consequently, the use of SgXBs for studies of massive stars is only possible when the physics of the stellar winds, the compact objects, and accretion mechanisms are combined together and confronted with observations.
This detailed review summarises the current knowledge on the theory and observations of winds from massive stars, as well as on observations and accretion processes in wind-fed high mass X-ray binaries. The aim is to combine in the near future all available theoretical diagnostics and observational measurements to achieve a unified picture of massive star winds in isolated objects and in binary systems.
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Notes
Already Lucy and Solomon (1970) pointed out that radiative line-driving is subject to a strong instability.
Contrasted to the almost metallicity-independent, porosity-moderated continuum-driven winds hypothesized by Owocki et al. (2004).
Both accelerations depend on \(r^{-2}\), at least in a homogeneous medium.
In the dense winds of Wolf-Rayet stars (see below), multi-line scattering needs to be accounted for.
\(k_{1}\) corresponds to \(t^{-1}\) in the notation of CAK.
Introduced by Pauldrach and Puls (1990) to explain the bi-stable behavior of wind models for P Cygni.
The importance of these opacity bumps was pointed out already by Nugis and Lamers (2002).
All these effects become significant if the rotational speed exceeds roughly 70% of the critical one.
For example, a large ratio between magnetic and wind energy.
The radial extent of that zone where photons can be absorbed by a specific line.
Or alternatively simply line-driven instability, also LDI.
Indeed, this suggestion was made already before all constraints were known.
To be regarded as a representative for other potential disturbances, e.g., localized magnetic fields or non-radial pulsations.
Motivated by a suggestion from Kaufer et al. (2006) who detected non-radial pulsations in the photospheric lines of HD 64760. To explain the observed H α variability, they invoked the beat period between two of these periods (lower than the rotational one!) to be responsible for the CIRs in the wind.
Colors are less meaningful (or not usable at all), because of the high temperatures.
By fitting the corresponding photospheric lines/line-strength ratios from two (or more) neighboring ionization stages.
If this is done over a wider range, the term spectral energy distribution (SED) is typically used.
Or from the black troughs, if present.
Sometimes, two velocity laws with different \(\beta\) are combined, e.g. Todt et al. (2010).
For low wind-densities, the wind emission ‘only’ fills in the photospheric absorption.
But note that, e.g., optical depths can change, see below.
Cohen et al. (2014) find wavelength dependences of \(\tau_{0}\) in their sample of O stars that are consistent with models without porosity; this is not surprising, since in the high frequency regime considered by Cohen et al. (2014) (below \(\sim15\mbox{--}20~{\mathring{\mathrm{A}}}\)) porosity is much less effective due to the lower opacity.
The clum** factor used in this (and other) work corresponds to the over-density \(D = f_{V}^{-1}\) introduced in Sect. 2.1.
A source that we do not deeply discuss in this review as the nature of its accreting compact object is still debated.
In their calculations the neutron star is not properly orbiting the companion but is assumed to be fixed at a certain distance while the variable and evolving wind is blown in its direction. The feedback of the X-ray radiation onto the stellar wind is also not included.
Note that this measurement has not been confirmed by Sguera et al. (2015).
Note that this event is considered sporadic because it requires the two magnetic fields to be aligned along a preferred geometry and it is being assumed here that only the winds of supergiant stars in SFXTs are sufficiently magnetized to give rise to such effects as bright outbursts are not observed in classical SgXBs.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the two anonymous referees for carefully reviewing such a large and detailed piece of work and for providing very useful comments, which have allowed us to improve this paper.
SMN acknowledges the support of the Spanish Unemployment Agency, which allowed her to continue her scientific collaborations while being temporarily unemployed during the critical situation of the Spanish Research System until March 2016.
SMN acknowledges support by research project ESP2016-76683-C3-1-R.
LS acknowledges the Italian Space Agency financial support INTEGRAL ASI/INAF agreement n. 2013-025.R.0, and the grant from PRIN-INAF 2014, “Towards a unified picture of accretion in High Mass X-Ray Binaries” (PI: Sidoli).
AGG acknowledges support by Spanish MICINN under FPI Fellowship BES-2011-050874 and the Vicerectorat d’Investigació, Desenvolupament i Innovació de la Universitat d’Alacant under project GRE12-35.
IK, MK, and JW are supported by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie under grant number 50OR1207 of the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt. MK also acknowledges support by the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie under Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt grant 50OR1113.
AS is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under grant HA 1455/26.
JMT acknowledges research grants ESP2013-48637-C2-2P and ESP2014-53672-C3-3-P.
This publication was motivated by a team meeting sponsored by the International Space Science Institute at Bern, Switzerland.
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Martínez-Núñez, S., Kretschmar, P., Bozzo, E. et al. Towards a Unified View of Inhomogeneous Stellar Winds in Isolated Supergiant Stars and Supergiant High Mass X-Ray Binaries. Space Sci Rev 212, 59–150 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0340-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0340-1