1 Introduction

1.1 Capitalization, Perceived Responses to Capitalization Attempts, and Psychological Well-Being

As individuals encounter a multitude of events in their daily lives, research has shown that the prevalence of positive events surpasses negative ones (Gable & Haidt, 2005). In fact, on average, people experience three positive events for every adverse event in their daily interactions. With this in mind, it becomes important to consider how individuals respond when things go well in their lives. One specific behavior that has garnered attention in this regard is capitalization, or the act of sharing the good news with others (Langston, 1994). This behavior, which involves communicating about a positive personal event and gaining additional benefits as a result, has been linked to increased joy and happiness, even beyond the initial impact of the event itself (Gable et al., 2004; Gable & Impett, 2012; Ilies et al., 2011, 2013; Kleiman et al., 2015; Langston, 1994; Lambert et al., 2011). Although previous studies mostly focused on understanding the capitalization attempts in romantic relationships, recent research by Derlega et al. (2011) indicated that individuals often share their experiences, particularly with their same-sex friends, as they are perceived as more stable, close, and helpful than romantic partners and more similar than other family members. Therefore, this study was designed to explore the capitalization process within the framework of same-sex friendships.

A notable aspect of the capitalization process is that individuals may only gain the additional benefits of sharing good news if the responses from their significant others are perceived as positive. Specifically, Gable and her colleagues (Gable & Algoe, 2010; Gable & Anderson, 2016; Gable & Reis, 2010; Peters et al., 2018) have proposed that the perception of the significant other’s response as enthusiastic rather than demeaning leads to both positive personal and relational outcomes, as genuinely enthusiastic responses not only increase the perceived value of the shared event but also increase the positive emotions of the person sharing it through validating their subjective experience (Lamber et al., 2013), improving self-assessments (Leary & Baumeister, 2000) and decreasing the stress level (Gable & Anderson, 2016). Then, these positive experiences can then create a cycle of positive emotions (Gable & Algoe, 2010). Peters et al. (2018) showed that individuals who respond to their partners’ capitalization attempts also experience positive outcomes. These benefits can arise from emotional contagion and the positive affective rewards associated with engaging in prosocial behavior. Empirical studies have supported this idea, demonstrating that perceived positive responses are associated with improved relationship outcomes, such as increased relationship satisfaction and quality, as well as increased happiness (Demir & Davidson, 2013; Gable et al., 2004; Logan & Cobb, 2016 and trust (Peters et al., 2018). Furthermore, in romantic relationships, this perception of positive responses enhances the sense of identity as a couple, which ultimately contributes to the relational well-being of the partners (Pagani et al., 2020) and their daily positive affect (Otto et al., 2015). Even children and adolescents’ happiness has been found to be others-oriented, with individuals reporting feeling happy when they receive reactions that demonstrate caring and interest from others, such as smiling or being called “cool” (Holder et al., 2017).

When individuals share a positive event with another person, they may receive different responses ranging from positive to negative. In order to categorize those, Gable et al. (2004) used a framework to categorize responses to conflicts in close relationships (e.g., Rusbult et al., 1991). The researchers identified four response types to capitalization attempts: active-constructive, passive-constructive, active-destructive, and passive-destructive. These responses cover a continuum of involvement and support levels, carrying implications not only for the relationship but also for individual well-being. The active-constructive (AC) response, characterized by genuine interest, and support, increases the levels of intimacy, trust, and commitment contributing to higher relationship satisfaction. Moreover, it is important to emphasize that active-constructive responses can lead to elevated levels of personal sense of unity, happiness, increased self-esteem, and reduced stress for the individual disclosing the positive event. The passive-constructive (PC) response, though seemingly positive, can inadvertently result in decreased intimacy and commitment within the relationship. While this response acknowledges the positivity of the event, it may lack the deeper engagement and interest needed to maintain the emotional communication between the individuals. The active-destructive (AD) response, on the other hand, characterized by a negative and unsupportive engagement with the shared positive event, not only harms the relationship but also has the potential to diminish the individual’s happiness and self-esteem. Lastly, the passive-destructive (PD) response is both indifferent and unsupportive. It may damage the relationship dynamics, but can also lead to feelings of isolation, a decrease in self-worth, and a sense of being unsupported for the individual disclosing the event. Consider the scenario in which Sarah, a college student, is informed that she has been awarded a prestigious scholarship and decides to share this news with her best friend. An active-constructive response from the friend would involve expressing interest and delight, such as “This is wonderful news! I am so proud of you. Let’s go and celebrate and you will tell me more!“ During active-constructive responses, enthusiasm for the good news may also be demonstrated through gestures and non-verbal behaviors, such as shared laughter, playfulness, and touch, and follow-up questions would be asked. On the contrary, a passive-constructive response would be characterized by understated and modest support, such as “That is interesting.”. Although passive-constructive responders approve of the positivity of the situation, they do not show much interest in the topic and ask for further elaboration. An active-destructive response, on the other hand, would involve diminishing the importance of the scholarship and pointing out potential problems, such as “It seems like everyone receives that scholarship anyway, and it requires you to work during the summer.” The responder seems disappointed and shows clear negative emotions through gestures while despising the success. Lastly, a passive-destructive response would involve a lack of interest and ignoring the event, such as “Oh, look! I just took the best selfie ever.“ They don’t show interest in the topic, and try to end the conversation as soon as possible (Kashdan et al., 2013). Notably, Pagani et al. (2013) investigated if there are any differences in how women and men respond to capitalization attempts, and they found no significant gender differences in the frequency of each response type, meaning that they tend to react to capitalization attempts in similar ways.

Why are positive and supportive responses so meaningful in the context of capitalization? The events that people share with their significant others provide valuable information about the self, and when people share those events with their significant others, particularly in the peer context, they desire to be acknowledged and understood. This acknowledgment only occurs when individuals discern that other recognize and value the shared event as important as themselves by giving supportive responses (Lemay & Neal, 2014; Reis, 2014). This is a central concept in the Perceived Partner Responsiveness model (PPR; Reis & Shaver, 1988). Perceived partner responsiveness is defined as “the process by which individuals believe that their relationship partners both attend to and react supportively to central, defining features of the self” (Reis et al., 2004; p. 203). Perceived partner responsiveness also suggests that individuals are likely to have better psychosocial outcomes when they perceive that their significant others respond in a way that makes them feel understood, validated, and cared for (Gable & Reis, 2010; Reis et al., 2004). Increased perceived partner responsiveness to capitalization attempts was associated with an increase in the feelings of intimacy for the sharing person and a decrease in the daily negative affect (Otto et al., 2015). In other words, the way in which a friend responds to the news that someone shares with them is at least as important as the news itself in terms of its impact on the individual sharing the event, as well as on the relationship between the sharer and the responder.

Several empirical studies have consistently found that only active-constructive responses are positively related to various indicators of relationship satisfaction and individual well-being, such as happiness. This is unsurprising, as research has shown that perceived enthusiastic responses capture the three essential components of positive personal reactions, which include validation of the shared event (Gable & Algoe, 2010). In contrast, the other three responses to capitalization attempts - passive-constructive, active-destructive, and passive-destructive - are negatively associated with well-being (Demir & Davidson, 2013; Donato et al., 2014; Gable et al., 2004, 2006; Lambert et al., 2013; Mattson et al., 2012). To further investigate the associations between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and well-being outcomes, researchers have also created a composite score, which reflects perceiving “more positive and less negative responses to capitalization attempts” (Gable et al., 2004, p. 234). This composite perceived responses to capitalization attempts score have been found to be positively correlated with relationship well-being and happiness (Demir & Davidson, 2013; Gable et al., 2004; Logan & Cobb, 2013).

Previous research has shown that perceived responses to capitalization attempts are not only linked to higher levels of happiness but also lower levels of depression. However, it is not yet clear how this association works. The current investigation aimed to contribute to the growing literature on perceived responses to capitalization attempts by examining the personal sense of uniqueness as the mediator of the perceived responses to capitalization attempts-mental health association.

In the following sections, we will define a personal sense of uniqueness and discuss its relationship with mental health indicators, as well as how it may play a role in the connection between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and mental health.

1.2 Sense of Uniqueness (UNIQ), and Mental Health Indicators

Massé et al. (1998) define mental health not only as the absence of negative indicators, like depression, low self-esteem, anxiety, or social withdrawal, but also as the presence of happiness, self-worth, and social engagement.

An important factor that contributes to mental health is the personal sense of uniqueness (Şimşek & Yalınçetin, 2010). Individuals with a high sense of uniqueness tend to have a strong belief in their inherent value and worth as a person, regardless of external circumstances or achievements. This unconditional self-worth can contribute to increased feelings of happiness and better mental health (Koydemir et al., 2014), as it not only allows individuals to be content and mindful of their own worth regardless of external circumstances but also enables them to perceive more enthusiastic reactions from their partners to their capitalization attempts (Smith & Reis, 2012). It is neither conforming to nor rejecting others’ expectations but rather pursuing one’s own path (Koydemir et al., 2020).

As empirical research suggests that self-worth is one of the strongest predictors of happiness (e.g., Lyubomirsky et al., 2006), it is plausible to argue that a personal sense of uniqueness contributes to one’s happiness. Indeed, a personal sense of uniqueness as representative of unconditional self-worth has been found to be strongly and positively correlated with happiness as well as other mental health variables such as resilience, dispositional hope, and basic psychological needs satisfaction. On the other hand, there is a negative relation between the personal sense of uniqueness, anxiety, and depression levels of individuals (Şimşek & Yalınçetin, 2010). This suggests that individuals who accept their distinctive characteristics, fostered by their interactions with significant others, and feel unique are more likely to feel happy in their lives.

1.3 Capitalization Responses, Sense of Uniqueness, and Mental Health Indicators

Previous research has also demonstrated associations between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and mental health indicators. However, the dynamic of this association still needs to be better understood. One possible explanation is that perceived responses to capitalization attempts, which involve the belief that one’s achievements and positive experiences are recognized and validated by others, may be related to mental health indicators because these experiences when shared with friends, can represent important elements of an individual’s identity. For example, suppose an individual shares with a friend about receiving a promotion. In that case, they may feel that their vocational abilities are being recognized and rewarded, which could tap into a core aspect of their self-definition. Similarly, the key aspect of a personal sense of uniqueness is that the individual feels unique due to their inherent characteristics. Therefore, if a shared event that represents a significant aspect of the individual’s identity is validated and acknowledged by a friend, it could contribute to their sense of uniqueness and ultimately enhance their mental health.

Personal sense of uniqueness may influence how an individual perceives the responses received from a friend upon sharing a positive event. However, theory and research on sense of uniqueness suggest otherwise. According to humanistic psychologists (e.g. Maslow, 1954), significant others in one’s life have the potential to foster a sense of uniqueness by creating a context in which an individual’s worth and uniqueness are recognized and valued. For instance, Rogers (1961) stated that feelings of respect and caring for each other within relationships could help to recognize and accept one’s unique characteristics. Emerging research on sense of uniqueness is consistent with these theoretical arguments, as various relationship experiences, such as parental support for basic psychological needs (Şimşek & Demir, 2013, 2014) and perceived positive responses from friends have been found to be associated with higher personalsense of uniqueness (Demir, 2017a; Demir et al., 2013). More importantly, these empirical studies have also shown that a sense of uniqueness mediates the association between the relationship experiences with various indices of mental health. Thus, we believe that perceived responses to capitalization attempts are related to and support the feelings of personal sense of uniqueness, which in turn would predict mental health indicators, namely depression and happiness levels. As previous findings show many friendship variables were positively associated with positive mental health indicators, such as happiness, to varying degrees consistently (Demir & Davidson, 2013), we aim to test the models in the context of same-sex friendships.

The current study aimed to contribute to the growing literature on perceived responses to capitalization attempts by examining the personal sense of uniqueness (Şimşek & Yalınçetin, 2010) as the mediator of the perceived responses to capitalization attempts-mental health outcomes, specifically happiness and depression, association. We hypothesized that higher levels of perceived responses to capitalization attempts would be associated with a greater personal sense of uniqueness, which in turn would be linked to lower levels of depression. Additionally, we expected that a sense of uniqueness would mediate the relationship between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and happiness, such that higher levels of perceived responses to capitalization attempts would be associated with a greater sense of uniqueness, leading to higher levels of happiness.

2 Method

2.1 Participants

The survey study was conducted on university students in the United States using snowball sampling. The ethical committee approval for the study was approved by the Northern Arizona University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and all involved researchers followed the ethical principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments throughout every stage of the study. Participants were recruited from a pool of students taking psychology courses. The online study was announced on the 2ndauthor’s previous department’s online research participation system. Participants had to be between 18 and 25 years old and have a same-sex best friend to be eligible for the study. The participants self-selected to be in the study such that the study title “Close Friendships and Well-being” was available to them. Participants signing up for the study were provided with a link and completed the online survey via surveymonkey.com. Participants had to provide their consent before continuing with the study, received a debriefing at the end of the study, and earned extra credit for their psychology courses. Finally, the order of the questionnaires on the survey was counterbalanced after every 100 participants.

The sample consisted of 557 (334 women, 220 men, three no response) participants from a Southwestern State University with a mean age of 19.39 (SD = 2.49). The ethnic distribution of the sample was as follows: 63% of the participants were Caucasian (N = 351), 14.5% were Hispanic (N = 81), 7% identified as multiracial (N = 39), while 4.1% were African American (N = 23), 3.8% were Native American (N = 21), 2.3% were East Asian (N = 13), 2.0% were Middle Eastern (N = 11), 1.3% were Pacific Islander (N = 7), 0.5% were Southeast Asian (N = 3), 0.2% were South Asian (N = 1), and the remaining 1.1% were classified as “Other” (N = 6). One participant did not provide information on their ethnicity. The majority (86.7%) of the sample was single, and 74.1% were living in campus residence halls.

2.2 Measurements

2.2.1 Perceived Responses to Capitalization Attempts Scale (PRCA)

The PRCA scale of Gable et al. (2004) consists of 12 items that assess the four types of responses to capitalization attempts. It has four subscales measuring the active-constructive (AC), passive-constructive (PC), active-destructive (AD), and passive-destructive (PD) responses separately. This scale was successfully adopted to assess friendship experiences and used in previous research (Demir et al., 2013, 2017a, 2019) and was based on a similar scale devised for the assessment of perceived responses in romantic relationships. Items are rated on a 1–7 point Likert type scale (1 = not at all true, 7 = very true) using the stem, “When I tell my same-sex best friend about something good that has happened to me…”. The stem served as the context for each response type, with the following examples provided: Active Constructive (AC) item: “My same-sex best friend usually reacts to my good fortune enthusiastically,“ Passive Constructive item: “My same-sex best friend tries not to make a big deal out of it, but is happy for me,“ Active Destructive item: “My same-sex best friend often finds a problem with it,“ and Passive Destructive item: “My same-sex best friend often seems disinterested.“ The subscale composite scores were created to assess the different types of responses, while a composite capitalization (CAP) score was created by subtracting the means of the passive-constructive, active-destructive, and passive-destructive subscales from the mean of the active-constructive subscale, as done in previous research (Demir et al., 2013, 2017b; Gable et al., 2004; Shallcross et al., 2011). A high composite score is indicated by a high active-constructive score and low passive-constructive, active-destructive, and passive-destructive scores. In the present study, the internal consistency of the scale was found to be acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.69).

2.2.2 Uniqueness

The Personal Sense of Uniqueness Scale (PSU) is a measure that has been developed by Şimşek and Yalınçetin (2010) to assess individuals’ sense of uniqueness (UNIQ). The scale consists of five items (e.g., ‘‘I feel that some of my characteristics are completely unique to me’’) that are rated on a five-point Likert-type scale, with responses ranging from 1 ="strongly disagree” to 5 ="strongly agree”. Previous research has demonstrated that the scale has good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.81. In addition, the scale has been found to be positively associated with life satisfaction and negatively associated with anxiety and depression (Şimşek & Yalınçetin, 2010). In the current study, the internal consistency of the scale was found to be adequate, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83.

2.2.3 Happiness

The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) and The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) were used to assess happiness (Hap) in the present study. The SHS, developed by Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999), consists of 4 items (e.g., “Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on, getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?”) rated on a 7-point scale (1 = not a very happy person, 7 = a very happy person). The scale aimed to assess the individual’s global happiness. A composite happiness score was created by calculating the mean of the four items after recoding the reverse-keyed item (HAP). PANAS (Watson et al., 1988) is used to assess the affective component of happiness and is comprised of 10 mood states for positive affect (PA) (e.g., excited) and 10 for negative affect (NA) (e.g., distressed). Mood states are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = very slightly or not all; 5 = extremely). An affect balance score is computed by subtracting the NA score from the PA score (PA-NA). (e.g., Pavot & Diener, 2013). The PANAS showed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80) in this study.

2.2.4 Depression

The depression levels of the participants (Dep) in the study were evaluated using the depression subscale of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). The Brief Symptom Inventory was created by Derogatis (1982, 1992) as a shortened version of the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R) that measures the nine symptomatology dimensions of different psychopathologies. The core symptoms of depression are measured through 12 items (e.g. “Feeling no interest in things”) that are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all, 5 = extremely). The scale has demonstrated high levels of internal consistency in past research, with alpha values ranging from 0.71 to 0.85 (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983). In the present study, the internal consistency coefficient of the scale was found to be high, with Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.92.

2.2.5 Social Desirability Scale

In order to control for the possibility of socially desirable responses from participants (SoDes), the 12-item Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale was utilized as in previous research (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960; Loo & Thorpe, 2000; Reynolds, 1982). This scale consists of items (e.g., “On a few occasions, I have given up doing something because I thought too little of my ability.”) that are rated on a 7-point Likert type scale, with a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher scores on the scale indicate a greater tendency towards social desirability. Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale showed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80) in this study.

2.3 Data Analysis

The current study employed structural equation modeling with LISREL 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2001) to test the proposed model. As explained by Şimşek (2013), the structural equation in the model was adjusted to account for the potential influence of social desirability (SoDes) on the observed variables of the other latent constructs. For this aim, pathways were added from social desirability to all of the observed variables, while the covariance of latent SoDes constructs with other latent constructs was constrained to be zero (Johnson et al., 2011; Williams & Anderson, 1994). Additionally, the variance of SoDes was set to 1.00 in order to identify the model. Moreover, we tested the correlations between gender (GEND), age, and all study variables, and gender was incorporated as a covariate, as it shows a significant association with the study variable, CAP (r = .334, p = 000). The variance of gender was also set to 1.00 for identifying the model. The structural model with the control variables was then estimated to determine whether it fits the data well. The estimates produced by LISREL were used to evaluate the significance of the indirect effects in the model. The structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was performed using the maximum likelihood (ML) estimator.

3 Results

3.1 Test of the Measurement Model

Ten observed variables and four latent variables were included in the hypothesized structural model. Since all latent variables in the model- except for the Sense of Uniqueness (Uniq), were multidimensional, parcels were created for Depression (Dep) and Social Desirability (SoDes). The subscales were computed, and active-constructive response (AC), passive-constructive response (PC), active-destructive (AD), and passive-destructive response (PD) were used as indicators of Perceived Responses to the Capitalization Attempts (Cap). The Happiness (Hap) latent construct was defined by calculating the “Positive Affect - Negative Affect” (PA - NA) and Subjective Happiness Scale scores (HAP). The Depression variable was parceled into three indicators. The mean values, standard deviations, and correlations among the observed variables are presented in Table 1. All of the skewness values were less than 2, and all of the kurtosis values were less than 3, with most of them being less than 1, indicating that the normality assumption was not violated.

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the study variables
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A test of the measurement model resulted in acceptable goodness of fit statistics: χ² (128, N = 557) = 674.24, p < .000; GFI = 0.88; CFI = 0.93; RMSEA = 0.08 (90% confidence interval for RMSEA = 0.04–0.06). All loadings of the measured variables on the latent variables were large and statistically significant, where standardized values ranged from 0.54 to 0.87. Also, all of the correlations among the modeled variables were statistically significant, and the correlation coefficients ranged from − 0.65 to 0.57. The correlations among the latent constructs are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Correlations of the Latent Constructs
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3.2 Test of the Structural Model

A test of the structural model resulted in acceptable goodness of fit statistics: χ² (126, N = 557) = 405.58, p < .001; GFI = 0.93; CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.06 (90% confidence interval for RMSEA = 0.05–0.06). Figure 1 summarizes the hypothesized mediation model with the given numbers. When the path between perceived responses to capitalization attempts to happiness was added to the structural model, the correlation between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and happiness was partially mediated by the sense of uniqueness. The strong correlation between perceived responses to capitalization attempts on happiness (0.56) became weak (0.27) but remained significant with the acceptable goodness of fit statistics: χ² (125, N = 557) = 371.13, p < .001; GFI = 0.93; CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.06 (90% confidence interval for RMSEA = 0.05–0.06). A chi-square difference test (34.45, 1: p < .001) was significant and indicated that adding the path to the model produced an improvement.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Standardized paramater estimates of the final structural model. Note. Cap = PRCA-Perceived responses to capitalization attempts, Uniq = Sense of uniqueness, Hap = Happiness, Dep = Depression. **p < .01

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The PROCESS macro in SPSS (Hayes, 2013) was employed to estimate all mediational relationships through bootstrap analysis, involving 5000 samples. The mediations were determined based on the 95% confidence intervals, which exclude zero within their range.

To examine the significance of the mediating role of the sense of uniqueness in the relationship between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and happiness, the bootstrap** tests were conducted. The indirect coefficient effect was found to be 0.054 (SE = 0.01), significantly differing from zero within a 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval. The interval ranged from 0.035 (BootLLCI) to 0.076 (BootULCI).

On the other hand, the path between perceived responses to capitalization attempts to depression was added to the structural model, indicating that the sense of uniqueness mediated the correlation between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and depression since the direct effect of perceived responses to capitalization attempts on depression (-0.32) became non-significant (-0.09). This model produced the following goodness of fit statistics: χ² (125, N = 557) = 401.54, p < .001; GFI = 0.93; CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.06 (90% confidence interval for RMSEA = 0.05–0.06). The chi-square difference test (4.04, 1: p = .044) indicated that the improvement in the model fit by adding this path to the model was statistically significant.

In order to test the significance of the mediational effect of sense of uniqueness in the relationship between perceived responses to capitalization attempts and depression, another bootstrap** test was conducted via PROCESS. The indirect coefficient effect was − 0.062 (SE = 0.01), significantly different from zero in a 95% biascorrected bootstrap confidence interval, and ranged from − 0.095 (BootLLCI) to − 0.033 (BootULCI).

4 Discussion

The present investigation sought to examine the mediational role of the sense of uniqueness in the association between the perceived responses to capitalization attempts in same-sex friendships and the levels of happiness and depression in a sample of university students. There has been limited understanding of the mechanisms through which perceived responses to capitalization attempts may influence mental health indicators. Our study is the first to demonstrate that a sense of uniqueness serves as a mediator in the association between perceived responses to capitalization attempts, happiness, and depression.

Past research has consistently demonstrated that perceiving more positive and less negative responses to capitalization attempts is associated with the levels of happiness (Demir et al., 2019; Demir & Davidson, 2013; Gable et al., 2004; Lakey, 2013). The current study adds to this body of research by showing that the associations between the composite score of perceived responses to capitalization attempts and happiness, as well as between the composite score of perceived responses to capitalization attempts and depression, are mediated by individuals’ sense of uniqueness, even when the social desirability levels and genders of the participants were controlled. Our findings align with previous research indicating that CAP is related to happiness in both romantic relationships and friendships. Additionally, our results are consistent with prior research in showing that the composite perceived responses to capitalization attempts score, calculated by subtracting the active-destructive, passive-constructive, and passive-destructive responses from the active-constructive responses, displayed a positive association with happiness while showing a negative association with depression.

The literature has provided conflicting empirical findings as to why perceived responses to capitalization attempts is a predictor of happiness beside the role of friendship quality and satisfaction of the basic psychological needs in the friendship. The findings revealed other possible mechanisms by which these characteristics are related to happiness and depression. That is, that perceiving more positive and less negative responses to capitalization attempts contributes to sense of uniqueness, which in turn contributes positively to happiness and negatively to depression through the sense of uniqueness. Our findings revealed that individuals scoring high on the composite score of perceived responses to capitalization attempts are prone to feel higher levels of sense of uniqueness. It is clear, then to suggest that genuinely enthusiastic active-constructive responses promote sense of uniqueness, validate one’s experience, and increase the event’s perceived value (Demir et al., 2017a). Beginning from the early studies (Maslow, 1954; Rogers, 1961), sense of uniqueness is accepted as a necessary element to achieve self-actualization and self-determination, thereby promoting happiness and lowering depression levels. Active-constructive responses of friends that enable individuals to feel more competent would also support feelings of being unique and special. Furthermore, other types of perceived responses to capitalization attempts (active-destructive, passive-constructive, and passive-destructive responses) are moderately negatively correlated with sense of uniqueness, meaning that people who get passive-constructive (attentive and interested but remain quiet), active-destructive (denying the positive nature of the event), orpassive-destructive (not attentive and interested and remained quiet or directed conversation to another way) responses feel less unique and special. It is probable that this is the case becauseactive-constructive responses offer individuals the opportunity to receive validation of their shared experiences, leading to an appreciation of their distinct existence.

In line with the previous literature, we found that sense of uniqueness is positively correlated with positive mental health indicators (Demir et al., 2019; Şimşek & Demir, 2014; Şimşek & Yalınçetin, 2010). Additionally,sense of uniqueness has been found to be negatively correlated with depression levels in individuals. The results of the current study provide implications with an empirical framework for mental health care professionals develo** and conducting preventive strategies for increasing positive mental health. In light of the findings, it may be beneficial to include strategies to promote subjective uniqueness in prevention programs. In fact, some existing preventive programs have already integrated activities designed to improve individuals’ sense of uniqueness to increase healthy behaviors. For instance, Chicago Public Schools highlighted the main principles of the prevention field and emphasized the include activities that foster self-esteem and a sense of uniqueness (McBride & Bell, 2011). In a prevention program that effectively reduces youth violence, the operationalization of this aspect is achieved by offering a diverse range of activities to help young individuals discover their unique talents (Shafii & Shafii, 2008). Such programs that aim to enhance not only the sense of uniqueness but also the social skills, including the ability to attempt and positively respond to capitalization processes in social relationships, should be expanded.

The findings of the study are also consistent with the others, which revealed that capitalization constitutes a considerable role in the happiness of individuals. The evidence demonstrated that perceived responses to capitalization attempts following the disclosure of positive personal events might increase personal and relationship well-being bringing about enthusiasm and support (Gable et al., 2004, 2006; Reis et al., 2010). From this point of view, the significance of capitalization support on relational outcomes should be considered in treating social anxiety and depressive disorders. The major cognitive structures in depression are based on social loss and personal failure, whereas in social anxiety, the themes are more around the perceived social threat of being rejected (Beck et al., 1985; Clark & Steer, 1996). Evidence shows that social anxiety affects a person’s ability to receive and provide support for shared positive events in a negative way (Kashdan et al., 2013). In this sense, it can be argued that the lack of capitalization attempts may also restrict the social interactions of people. Moreover, according to Taylor and Brown (1988), depressive disorders are linked to an underappreciation of positive events and a lack of recognition or expression of them. Gable et al. (2004) posit that discussing and acknowledging positive experiences can strengthen their presence in memory, increasing the accessibility of these events for future recall and enhancing the recollection of accompanying positive emotions. Regarding that, interventions aimed at promoting reciprocal capitalization attempts and active-constructive responses may offer to foster a positive focus on and effective engagement with positive events and have the potential to enhance memory accessibility, promote positive emotions, and counteract the underappreciation and lack of recognition often associated with depressive disorders. Broadly, addressing the barriers or reasons behind the lack of capitalization attempts as well as teaching capitalization attempts and how to give active-constructive responses, might be part of a treatment protocol to take an opportunity for patients or couples to get positive social reinforcements.

Furthermore, previous studies have emphasized that the individual needs and expectations of both the actor and the partner are influenced by past relationship experiences (Reis, 2014) and have an impact on showing and perceiving responsiveness from each other (Reis & Gable, 2015). While the partner’s own needs and expectations can influence their intention and expressions of responsiveness, the actor’s needs and expectations can directly affect the perceived responsiveness. When the actor does not perceive the partner as responsive, it could be due to the partner’s lack of awareness of the need for responsiveness, their absence of intention to behave responsively, their inability to demonstrate expected responsive behavior or factors related to the actor themselves. Therefore, teaching couples to share and savor positive experiences together may have a significant contribution to the functioning of their relationship and increase shared happiness (Wang et al., 2022).

On the other side, the findings of the present study should be carefully considered and interpreted. It is worth noting that while the model used in this study was based on theories, further research utilizing longitudinal or experimental designs is necessary to establish causal relationships. Additionally, the sample of this study only consisted of American college students. Although they had different ethnic backgrounds, the conclusions of this study may not be generalizable to other cultures and age groups, as the terms such as happiness, as well as interpersonal dynamics can be considered as culture-dependent (Lambert et al., 2022). However, individuals both from individualistic and collectivistic cultures might benefit from capitalization attempts by gaining positive mental outcomes, as it might satisfy not only the individualistic needs (such as the need for personal recognition but also the collectivistic need, such as the need for connection with other members of the group (Uchida & Ogihara, 2012).

Moreover, the attributes of the relationship and the qualities of the other member within the dyad are likely to influence individuals (Brauer & Proyer, 2021; Little & Card, 2005). Considering this dyadic nature of friendships, it is important to acknowledge the complexities of dyadic processes in further studies. Therefore, we propose that future research should incorporate the analysis of dyadic data involving both friends within a friendship, utilizing methodologies such as the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Cook & Kenny, 2005) or Social Relations Model (SRM; Kenny & La Voie, 1984). These methodologies would provide a structured framework for comprehensively understanding the interplay between the two individuals’ responses to each other’s capitalization attempts and offer a broader perspective on the dynamics of capitalization within close friendships.

An additional consideration to take into account is that the use of the personal sense of uniqueness as an indicator in this study, which only consisted of five items, may have impacted the reliability of the structural equation modeling. This may have resulted in limitations in the reliability of the results. In order to address this issue and improve the reliability of these findings, it may be useful for future research to utilize more reliable latent constructs for the concept of uniqueness. This could potentially enhance the reliability and validity of the results.

In conclusion, our findings support the idea that satisfaction of basic psychological needs through capitalization and supportive dyadic responses are closely related to positive mental health (Demir, 2019; Demir & Davidson, 2013; Gable et al., 2004; Lakey, 2013). We also contributed to the existing literature by demonstrating that perceiving more positive and less negative responses to capitalization attempts in same-sex friendships is positively related to happiness and negatively related to depression through the sense of uniqueness. Despite certain limitations, these findings underscore the significance of perceived responses to capitalization attempts and sense of uniqueness and suggest that future research should aim to further investigate the role of these variables in promoting positive mental health. Specifically, prevention and intervention studies focusing on these constructs should be designed and tested.