Abstract
The unused waste of Rosewater extraction has been used in this study for the synthesis of an adsorbent. The activation of the unused waste of Rosewater extraction was performed by ZnCl2 and the electric furnace. The effects of temperature and the amount of ZnCl2 on Crystal Violet (CV) removal were studied. The highest dye removal was obtained by 30 wt% ZnCl2 for one hour and heating at 600 °C. The synthesized adsorbent was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction technique, X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and N2 adsorption/desorption isotherm. The studies showed the percentage of ZnO is high in the prepared adsorbent. The analyses showed the adsorbent has a higher volume of wide micropores and a small volume of mesopores with BET surface area 432.51 m2 g−1. The effects of temperature (25–40 °C), adsorbent dosage (0.5–2 g L−1), pH (2–11), time (0–320 min), and dye concentration (3–10 mg L−1) on adsorbent's ability for dye adsorption were studied. The fractal-like integrated kinetic model and Freundlich isotherm were the best kinetic and isotherm equations for CV adsorption on the synthesized adsorbent. These results show that the surface of the adsorbent is heterogeneous. The thermodynamic study showed that adsorption is spontaneous, and it is chemisorption. The adsorption performance of CV on the prepared adsorbent was compared with the commercial activated carbon. Comparing the adsorption capacities of the synthesized adsorbent (168.8 mg g−1), commercial activated carbon (108.22 mg g−1), and some other adsorbents for CV removal proved, it is a high efficient adsorbent. The importance of this study is providing a condition for the preparation of a low-cost and high efficient adsorbent from the unused waste of Rosewater extraction for water purification.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig5_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig7_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig8_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig9_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig10_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig11_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig12_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13738-021-02222-y/MediaObjects/13738_2021_2222_Fig13_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
L. Pereira, M. Alves, Dyes—Environmental Impact and Remediation, Environmental Protection Strategies for Sustainable Development (Springer, Dordrecht, 2012), pp. 111–162
M.T. Yagub, T.K. Sen, S. Afroze, H.M. Ang, Dye and its removal from aqueous solution by adsorption: a review. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 209, 172–184 (2014)
M. Abbasi, N. RazzaghiAsl, Sonochemical degradation of basic blue 41 dye assisted by nanoTiO2 and H2O2. J. Hazard. Mater. 153, 942–947 (2008)
N. Zaghbani, A. Hafiane, M. Dhahbi, Removal of Safranin T from wastewater using micellar enhanced ultrafiltration. Desalination 222, 348–356 (2008)
M.-X. Zhu, L. Lee, H.-H. Wang, Z. Wang, Removal of an anionic dye by adsorption/precipitation processes using alkaline white mud. J. Hazard. Mater. 149, 735–741 (2007)
U. Kamran, H.N. Bhatti, M. Iqbal, S. Jamil, M. Zahid, Biogenic synthesis, characterization and investigation of photocatalytic and antimicrobial activity of manganese nanoparticles synthesized from Cinnamomum verum bark extract. J. Mol. Struct. 1179, 532–539 (2019)
S. Eris, H. Bashiri, Kinetic study of the adsorption of dyes onto activated carbon. Prog. React. Kinet. Mech. 41, 109–119 (2016)
M. Sarabadan, H. Bashiri, S.M. Mousavi, Adsorption of crystal violet dye by zeolite-montmorillonite: modeling, kinetic and equilibrium studies. Clay Miner. 54, 357–368 (2019)
H. Bashiri, M. Rafiee, Kinetic Monte Carlo simulation of 2,4,6-thrichloro phenol ozonation in the presence of ZnO nanocatalyst. J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 20, 474–479 (2016)
J.-S. Wu, C.-H. Liu, K.H. Chu, S.-Y. Suen, Removal of cationic dye methyl violet 2B from water by cation exchange membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 309, 239–245 (2008)
J. García-Montaño, L. Pérez-Estrada, I. Oller, M.I. Maldonado, F. Torrades, J. Peral, Pilot plant scale reactive dyes degradation by solar photo-Fenton and biological processes. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A 195, 205–214 (2008)
L. Fan, Y. Zhou, W. Yang, G. Chen, F. Yang, Electrochemical degradation of aqueous solution of Amaranth azo dye on ACF under potentiostatic model. Dyes Pigm. 76, 440–446 (2008)
S. Li, Removal of crystal violet from aqueous solution by sorption into semi-interpenetrated networks hydrogels constituted of poly(acrylic acid-acrylamide-methacrylate) and amylose. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 2197–2202 (2010)
X.S. Wang, W. Zhang, Removal of basic dye crystal violet from aqueous solution by Cu(II)-Loaded Montmorillonite. Sep. Sci. Technol. 46, 656–663 (2011)
P. Monash, G. Pugazhenthi, Removal of crystal violet dye from aqueous solution using Calcined and Uncalcined Mixed Clay Adsorbents. Sep. Sci. Technol. 45, 94–104 (2009)
M. Sarabadan, H. Bashiri, S.M. Mousavi, Removal of crystal violet dye by an efficient and low cost adsorbent: modeling, kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic studies. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 36, 1575–1586 (2019)
J. Mo, Q. Yang, N. Zhang, W. Zhang, Y. Zheng, Z. Zhang, A review on agro-industrial waste (AIW) derived adsorbents for water and wastewater treatment. J. Environ. Manage 227, 395–405 (2018)
M.A. Tahir, H.N. Bhatti, I. Hussain, I.A. Bhatti, M. Asghar, Sol–Gel synthesis of mesoporous silica-iron composite: kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics studies for the adsorption of Turquoise-Blue X-GB Dye. Z. Phys. Chem. 234, 233–253 (2020)
S. Noreen, H.N. Bhatti, M. Iqbal, F. Hussain, F.M. Sarim, Chitosan, starch, polyaniline and polypyrrole biocomposite with sugarcane bagasse for the efficient removal of Acid Black dye. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 147, 439–452 (2020)
K.M.S. Khalil, O.A.S. Allam, M. Khairy, K.M.H. Mohammed, R.M. Elkhatib, M.A. Hamed, High surface area nanostructured activated carbons derived from sustainable sorghum stalk. J. Mol. Liq. 247, 386–396 (2017)
B. Heibati, S. Rodriguez-Couto, M.A. Al-Ghouti, M. Asif, I. Tyagi, S. Agarwal, V.K. Gupta, Kinetics and thermodynamics of enhanced adsorption of the dye AR 18 using activated carbons prepared from walnut and poplar woods. J. Mol. Liq. 208, 99–105 (2015)
S. Somasundaram, K. Sekar, V.K. Gupta, S. Ganesan, Synthesis and characterization of mesoporous activated carbon from rice husk for adsorption of glycine from alcohol-aqueous mixture. J. Mol. Liq. 177, 416–425 (2013)
L. Muniandy, F. Adam, A.R. Mohamed, E.-P. Ng, The synthesis and characterization of high purity mixed microporous/mesoporous activated carbon from rice husk using chemical activation with NaOH and KOH. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 197, 316–323 (2014)
E. Menya, P.W. Olupot, H. Storz, M. Lubwama, Y. Kiros, Production and performance of activated carbon from rice husks for removal of natural organic matter from water: a review. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 129, 271–296 (2018)
H.N. Bhatti, Y. Safa, S.M. Yakout, O.H. Shair, M. Iqbal, A. Nazir, Efficient removal of dyes using carboxymethyl cellulose/alginate/polyvinyl alcohol/rice husk composite: adsorption/desorption, kinetics and recycling studies. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 150, 861–870 (2020)
H. Bashiri, S. Nesari, Removal of Alizarin yellow from water by activated carbon prepared from microwave radiation of rice husk: thermodynamic, equilibrium and kinetic study. J. Appl. Chem. 14, 335–352 (2019)
T. Yang, A.C. Lua, Textural and chemical properties of zinc chloride activated carbons prepared from pistachio-nut shells. Mater. Chem. Phys. 100, 438–444 (2006)
A.M.K.P. Singh, S. Sinha, P. Ojha, Liquid-phase adsorption of phenols using activated carbons derived from agricultural waste material. J. Hazard. Mater. 150, 626–641 (2008)
A.-A. Peláez-Cid, A.-M. Herrera-González, M. Salazar-Villanueva, A. Bautista-Hernández, Elimination of textile dyes using activated carbons prepared from vegetable residues and their characterization. J. Environ. Manage 181, 269–278 (2016)
H. Ali, S. Muhammad, Biosorption of crystal violet from water on leaf biomass of Calotropis procera. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1, 143–150 (2008)
P. Grassi, C. Reis, F.C. Drumm, J. Georgin, D. Tonato, L.B. Escudero, R. Kuhn, S.L. Jahn, G.L. Dotto, Biosorption of crystal violet dye using inactive biomass of the fungus Diaporthe schini. Water Sci. Technol. 79, 709–717 (2019)
P. Kyi, J. Quansah, C.-G. Lee, J.K. Moon, S.-J. Park, The removal of crystal violet from textile wastewater using Palm Kernel Shell-Derived Biochar. Appl. Sci. 10, 2251 (2020)
N. Laskar, U. Kumar, Adsorption of crystal violet from wastewater by Modified Bambusa Tulda. KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 22, 2755–2763 (2018)
M. Alshabanat, G. Alsenani, R. Almufarij, Removal of crystal violet dye from aqueous solutions onto date palm fiber by adsorption technique. J. Chem. 2013, 210239 (2013)
V. Gomez-Serrano, J. Pastor-Villegas, A. Perez-Florindo, C. Duran-Valle, C. Valenzuela-Calahorro, FT-IR study of rockrose and of char and activated carbon. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 36, 71–80 (1996)
C. Saka, BET, TG–DTG, FT-IR, SEM, iodine number analysis and preparation of activated carbon from acorn shell by chemical activation with ZnCl2. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 95, 21–24 (2012)
R. Wahab, S.G. Ansari, Y.S. Kim, H.K. Seo, G.S. Kim, G. Khang, H.-S. Shin, Low temperature solution synthesis and characterization of ZnO nano-flowers. Mater. Res. Bull. 42, 1640–1648 (2007)
A.R. Hidayu, N.F. Mohamad, S. Matali, A.S.A.K. Sharifah, Characterization of activated carbon prepared from oil palm empty fruit bunch using BET and FT-IR techniques. Procedia Eng. 68, 379–384 (2013)
K.S.K. Reddy, A. Al Shoaibi, C. Srinivasakannan, Activated carbon from date palm seed: process optimization using response surface methodology. Waste Biomass Valoriz. 3, 149–156 (2012)
I. Langmuir, The constitution and fundamental properties of solids and liquids. PART I. Solids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 38, 2221–2295 (1916)
H. Freundlich, Über die Adsorption in Lösungen. Z. Phys. Chem. 57U, 385 (1907)
M.J. Temkin, V. Pyzhev, Recent modification to Langmiur isotherms. Acta Physicochimica U.R.S.S. 12, 327–356 (1940)
R. Sips, On the structure of a catalyst surface. J. Chem. Phys. 16, 490–495 (1948)
S. Lagergren, Zur theorie der sogenannten adsorption geloster stoffe. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens. Handlingar 24, 1–39 (1898)
Y.S. Ho, G. Mckay, The kinetics of sorption of basic dyes from aqueous solution by sphagnum moss peat. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 76, 822–827 (1998)
J. Zeldowitsch, Über den mechanismus der katalytischen oxydation von CO an MnO2. Acta Physicochimica URSS 1, 449–464 (1934)
S.S.C. Aharoni, E. Hoffer, Adsorption of phosphate ions by collodion-coated alumina. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 29, 404–412 (1979)
S. Azizian, H. Bashiri, Adsorption kinetics at the solid/solution interface: statistical rate theory at initial times of adsorption and close to equilibrium. Langmuir 24, 11669–11676 (2008)
X. Yang, B. Al-Duri, Kinetic modeling of liquid-phase adsorption of reactive dyes on activated carbon. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 287, 25–34 (2005)
A.W. Marczewski, Analysis of kinetic Langmuir model. part I: integrated kinetic Langmuir equation (IKL) a new complete analytical solution of the Langmuir rate equation. Langmuir 26, 15229–15238 (2010)
M. Haerifar, S. Azizian, Fractal-like adsorption kinetics at the solid/solution interface. J. Phys. Chem. C 116, 13111–13119 (2012)
H.N. Tran, S.-J. You, H.-P. Chao, Thermodynamic parameters of cadmium adsorption onto orange peel calculated from various methods: a comparison study. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 4, 2671–2682 (2016)
O.S. Amodu, T.V. Ojumu, S.K. Ntwampe, O.S. Ayanda, Rapid adsorption of crystal violet onto magnetic zeolite synthesized from fly ash and magnetite nanoparticles. J. Encapsul. Adsorpt. Sci. 5, 191–203 (2015)
T.C.R. Bertolini, J.C. Izidoro, C.P. Magdalena, D.A. Fungaro, Adsorption of crystal violet dye from aqueous solution onto zeolites from coal fly and bottom ashes. Orbital Electron. J. Chem. 5, 179–191 (2013)
M.K. Satapathy, P. Das, Optimization of crystal violet dye removal using novel soil-silver nanocomposite as nanoadsorbent using response surface methodology. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2, 708–714 (2014)
S. Senthilkumaar, P. Kalaamani, C.V. Subburaam, Liquid phase adsorption of crystal violet onto activated carbons derived from male flowers of coconut tree. J. Hazard. Mater. 136, 800–808 (2006)
M. Ishaq, F. Javed, I. Amad, H. Ullah, F. Hadi, S. Sultan, Adsorption of crystal violet dye from aqueous solutions onto low-cost untreated and NaOH treated almond shell. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE) 35, 97–106 (2016)
E. Alipanahpour Dila, M. Ghaedi, A. Ghaedi, A. Asfaram, M. Jamshidi, M.K. Purkait, Application of artificial neural network and response surface methodology for the removal of crystal violet by zinc oxide nanorods loaded on activate carbon: kinetics and equilibrium study. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 59, 210–220 (2016)
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to University of Kashan for supporting this work by Grant No. (785108/1).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Falaki, Z., Bashiri, H. Preparing an adsorbent from the unused solid waste of Rosewater extraction for high efficient removal of Crystal Violet. J IRAN CHEM SOC 18, 2689–2702 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13738-021-02222-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13738-021-02222-y