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“Unrestricted Research Opportunities” with “Unpleasant Surprises” – German Archaeologists in Greece During the National Socialist Era

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National-Socialist Archaeology in Europe and its Legacies

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Abstract

This chapter aims to give an overview of relationships and connections between German and Greek archaeologists during the years 1933 and 1950 divided into four successive sections. It focuses on German academics who had close ties to Greece and Greek archaeology through both their archaeological work and their social and personal circumstances. The first section examines events of 1933, when Hitler came to power, and demonstrates the reaction of the German Archaeological Institute at Athens, as well as other Germans and Greeks, to this event. The diary of a renowned archaeologist kept at this time offers new insights into contemporaneous upheavals. The second section examines how the new philhellenic National Socialist system met with considerable approval in Greek circles. Close political and economic collaboration supported cultural exchange between the two countries. The third section, marked by the Wehrmacht invasion and the ensuing occupation of Greece in April 1941, should be seen as a turning point, as occupying National Socialist archaeologists eagerly and unscrupulously carried out archaeological projects in Greece. The fourth section critically evaluates this archaeological ‘exploitation’ and the resulting disagreements, which proved an obstacle to the resumption of German archaeological work in Greece post war.

Quote in the title: DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, excerpt from a letter from Karl Kübler to Martin Schede, 26.5.1941.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Rudolf Ludwig Friedrich Herzog was Rektor [Dean] at the Universität Gießen [University of Gießen] from 1928 und its Kanzler [Director] from 1933. Together with Paul Schazmann (1871–1946) from Switzerland he published the Sanctuary of Asklepion at Kos in 1932 (Holfelder, 2012, p. 40, Fig. 11). It is not clear from his diary in what role and on whose behalf, he came to Athens in 1933. In a letter to the central office, he indicates that he undertook his trips to Athens and Rome “für das Deutschtum im Auftrag der Deutschen Akademie” [“for the Germanness on behalf of the German Academy”]; cf. DAI Berlin, Central Archive, from the estate of Theodor Wiegand Box 18, letter from Herzog to Wiegand, 10.7.1933.

  2. 2.

    Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Inscriptiones Graecae (BBAW, IG)

  3. 3.

    Germany’s influence on Greece increased greatly during the inter-war period and especially during the 1930s. In many areas the Nazi system served as a role model (Papanastasiou, 2000; Zacharioudakis, 2002; Petrakis, 2011; Koris 2017).

  4. 4.

    Walther Wrede occupied the role of Second Secretary at the DAI Athen from 1928 to 1936. At Hitler’s behest he was appointed First Secretary in 1937. From 1935 he held the position of Landesgruppenleiter [Country Group Leader] of the NSDAP/AO in Greece (Krumme, 2012, p. 162).

  5. 5.

    Gottfried Felix Merkel was employed as a German tutor at the Technical University of Athens. He pursued the goal of establishing a German Studies seminar at the Athenian University, cf. PA AA R 60057, letter from the Deutsche Gesandschaft Athen to the Auswärtiges Amt Berlin, 24.2.1937 (Zarifi, 2010, p. 158).

  6. 6.

    Herzog here mistakenly writes “Εθνιστική Νεολαία”. The organisation in question is actually the “Εθνική Νεολαία”, a precursor to the fascist National Youth Organisation EON “Εθνική Οργάνωσις Νεολαίας”, which existed in Greece during the Metaxas dictatorship from 1936 to 1941 (Tremopoulos, 2014).

  7. 7.

    The Hitlerjugend came into being in Greece in 1933. A co-founder was the epigraphist and archaeologist Werner Peek (1904–1994): “Soon after the National Socialist Revolution he set about attracting the children of German families settled in Greece to the Hitlerjugend […] If the National Socialist movement has achieved wide recognition in Greece, one cannot overlook the fact that P. with his boys and girls marching in uniform through the streets or towns, singing and proclaiming, has played a significant part in that.”, cf. BStU, MfS, BV Halle, AOP 1124/63, Main Department V/6/II, 29.10.1959.

  8. 8.

    To date no further information has been found relating to Schrage’s role in Greece.

  9. 9.

    Konstantinos Logothetopoulos (1878–1961) studied medicine in Munich and was married to a German woman. He was a committed National Socialist and, following the Wehrmacht invasion in 1941, became Vice President and Minister of Education in the Greek collaborationist government. From 2nd December 1942 to 7th April 1943 he occupied the office of Prime Minister, but was removed after a short time on grounds of incompetence.

  10. 10.

    Helene Wenck (1889–1976) was the daughter of the history professor Karl-Robert Wenck from Marburg. She worked as ‘personal assistant’ to the First Secretary of the DAI Athen, Georg Karo (1872–1963). In 1940 she became his wife (Lindenlauf, 2015, pp. 273, 277; 2016, p. 58, 70).

  11. 11.

    Herzog writes “Kazandschis” or “Kazandzis” (i.e. Καζαντής). This might be connected to a certain Dr. Kazantzis, a teacher at the Deutsche Schule Athen (Koutsoukou, 2008, p. 102); PA AA RAV Athen Vol. 63, negative judgment of his politicised lessons in the Greek newspaper ‘Patris’ from 18.2.1936.

  12. 12.

    Erich Heberlein (1889–1980) was employed as Legationsrat [Legation Councillor] from 1928 to 1934 at the Auswärtiges Amt in Athens. In 1935 he became a member of the NSDAP. In the post-war years Heberlein attained a certain fame when it became known that he, along with his Spanish wife, was kidnapped by the Gestapo from his estate near Toledo and brought to Dachau concentration camp.

  13. 13.

    Konstantinos Kourouniotis (1872–1945) studied archaeology in Athens, Jena and Munich. During World War I he was in charge of protecting the DAI premises in Phidiou Street 1, so that in 1920 the institute was able to resume its business without having suffered serious damage.

  14. 14.

    Karl Kudorfer (1902–1958) was the leader of the National Socialist Ortsgruppe [Local Group] in Athens (Koutsoukou, 2008, p. 184, note 22) from 1932. On 20th April 1933 he was elected to the Schulrat [School Council] of the Deutsche Schule Athen, which sparked criticism in some circles; cf. PA AA R 63903 g. Concerning the career of Kudorfer in Greece see PA AA RAV Athen Vol. 63, article in the newspaper ‘Patris’ from 18.2.1936; BArch R 9361-II 593298.

  15. 15.

    Stylianos Sepheriadis (1873–1951) studied law in Aix-en-Provence and Paris. His son was the writer and diplomat Giorgos Seferis (1900–1971), who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1963.

  16. 16.

    Georg Karo was First Secretary of the DAI Athen from 1912 to 1919 and 1930 to 1936. Due to his Jewish origins, he was forced to emigrate to the USA in 1939 (Lindenlauf, 2015, pp. 311–324, 335; 2016, pp. 69–78).

  17. 17.

    Werner Peek (1904–1994) was Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff’s last pupil and was held in high esteem both domestically and abroad. As Leader of the Hitlerjugend he initiated the construction of a hostel for the Hitlerjugend in Skaramanga in 1935. Previous Hitlerjugend meetings were held at the DAI Athen (on the rooftop terrace) and in the Deutsche Schule Athen (in the gym). Peek gradually assembled a private collection of antique artefacts, which he was able to transport illegally to Germany in 1934 with the help of Hermann Göring (1893–1946); for more on this see Kavvadias, 2019.

  18. 18.

    Hugo Bruckmann (1863–1941) was a German publisher and belonged to the most influential supporters of Adolf Hitler. He was a member of the Reichstag from 1932 up to his death.

  19. 19.

    Ioannis Metaxas (1871–1941) stood for, as a general and parliamentary representative, a political stance that was conservative and royalist. His counterpart was Eleftherios Venizelos (1864–1936), who followed a more liberal and progressive line. On fourth August 1936 Metaxas, with the approval of Georg II, carried out a coup. His dictatorship lasted until 1941. Metaxas had studied at the Preußische Kriegsakademie [Prussian Military Academy] in Berlin and thus had a great affinity with Germany (Petrakis, 2011, pp. 20, 132–236). He died in January 1941, shortly before the Wehrmacht invasion.

  20. 20.

    Carl Kindermann (1891–1936?) was head of the Evangelical Church in Athens from 1929 to 1936. He disappeared without trace in Germany in 1936; cf. PA AA RAV Athen Vol. 63.

  21. 21.

    Paul Schazmann (1871–1946) worked as an archaeologist and architect in excavations at the Pergamon and on the island of Kos. Decades of joint work bound him to Herzog.

  22. 22.

    Kurt Müller (1880–1972) was employed at the DAI Athen for several years before World War I. He later became a professor at the University of Göttingen. After the National Socialists seized power, he was among the many professors who, on 11th November 1933, signed the Bekenntnis der Professoren an den deutschen Universitäten und Hochschulen zu Adolf Hitler und dem nationalsozialistischen Staat [Declaration of Support for Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist State].

  23. 23.

    The German ‘Philadelphia’ society was founded in 1837. Initially it was a meeting point for the German officers who came with King Otto to Greece. In the second half of the nineteenth century it increasingly developed into an exclusive club for the upper echelons of German society in Greece (Barth & Auernheimer, 2001).

  24. 24.

    Information regarding names and the precise number of Greek archaeologists who were involved in German universities between 1933 and 1945 is not yet available. The main centres in the inter-war period were undoubtedly Munich, Heidelberg and Berlin. After 1939, mainly female students were present at the archaeological institutes, for example Eleni-Alexandra Sfinis (later Amburger), who studied Classical Archaeology in Berlin in the 1940s.

  25. 25.

    Pelekanidis studied Classical and Byzantine Archaeology in Berlin from 1935 onwards. In 1939 he completed his doctoral thesis on Early-Christian floor mosaics in Thessaloniki. In 1943 he was appointed Ephor of Byzantine Antiquities of Thessaloniki.

  26. 26.

    The architect Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis (1913–1975) was one of the more prominent scholarship recipients. He gained his doctoral title in 1937 at the TU Berlin with a work on the theme of “Raumordnung im griechischen Städtebau” [“Regional planning in Greek urban development”]. In his introduction he explicitly thanked the DAI, the Deutsche Akademie für Städtebau, Reichs- und Landesplanung [German Academy for Town and Regional Planning] and the Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft für Raumforschung [Reich Work Group for Spatial Research] (Doxiadis, 1937, p. 4).

  27. 27.

    For more on the so-called Führer Excavation: DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 34–04-II, letter from Wrede to Schede, 2.5.1937. List of German participants at the opening ceremony and article from the Neue Athener Zeitung from 17.4.1937.

  28. 28.

    PA AA RAV Athens 32, letter from the Auswärtiges Amt to the Gesandtschaft Athen, 27.4.1937. Article in the Neue Athener Zeitung from 8.5.1937 (Koutsoukou, 2008, p. 83).

  29. 29.

    Torsten Israel, to whom I owe my gratitude, is currently researching this group in more detail. During the National Socialist era at least seven Jewish archaeologists came from Germany and Austria to Greece. Their living conditions should be the subject of further investigation.

  30. 30.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Homann-Wedeking to Schede, 29.10.1937.

  31. 31.

    Karl Schefold (1905–1999) was married to Marianne von den Steinen, who was half-Jewish, and as a result emigrated to Switzerland in 1935.

  32. 32.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Schede to Homann-Wedeking, 5.11.1937. In the end, the article by Berta Segall was not published in the Athenische Mitteilungen.

  33. 33.

    On the Odyssey of the Charioteer of Delphi during World War II: Kankeleit, 2021.

  34. 34.

    For more on the situation in Greece during World War II, after the occupation and during the Greek Civil War: Mazower, 1993, 2000; Close, 1995; Nessou, 2009; Richter, 2012; Fleischer, 2015; Králová, 2016.

  35. 35.

    Lawrence Durrell (1912–1990) lived in Greece from 1935–1941. In a letter to Henry Miller he described the burial of the writer Kostis Palamas (1859–1943). The memorial service turned into an act of resistance against the German occupation as, following the eulogy by the poet Angelos Sikelianos (1884–1951), several thousand Greeks demonstrated and sang the national anthem (Durrell, 1988, p. 192).

  36. 36.

    This applies in particular to archaeological activities on Crete (see Chap. 12), aerial photography, archaeological surveys and rescue excavations throughout Greece.

  37. 37.

    Franziskus Wolff Metternich (1893–1978), art historian, led the Wehrmacht’s Kunstschutz from 1940–1942.

  38. 38.

    Hans von Schoenebeck (1904–1944), classical archaeologist, led the Kunstschutz in Greece from 1941–1942.

  39. 39.

    Bernhard von Tieschowitz (1902–1968), art historian, was appointed head of the Kunstschutz in 1942.

  40. 40.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Schede to Wrede, 5.5.1941.

  41. 41.

    Wilhelm Kraiker (1899–1987), classical archaeologist, worked in Greece for the Kunstschutz from 1941 to 1944. In 1942 he took over the leadership.

  42. 42.

    Franz Doelger (1891–1968), Byzantinist, had several stays in Greece during the occupation. In 1941 he was part of the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg’s Sonderstab Athos [Athos Unit] (Losemann, 1977, pp. 154, 247).

  43. 43.

    Frank Brommer (1911–1993), classical archaeologist, worked at the DAI Athen until 1940; cf. DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Kübler to the Central Office, 5.2.1941.

  44. 44.

    Christos Karouzos (1900–1967) and Semni Papaspyridi-Karouzou (1898–1994) were among the most renowned classical archaeologists in Greece.

  45. 45.

    In the letter Christos Karouzos announced that he was giving up his membership of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut in protest at the occupation of Greece (Petrakos 1994, p. 172; Koutsoukou, 2016, p. 332; German translation: http://www.kankeleit.de/zitat_5.php)

  46. 46.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Wrede to Schede, 5.5.1941.

  47. 47.

    Emil Kunze (1901–1994) and Hans Schleif (1902–1945) led the excavations at Olympia from 1937 (Stürmer, 2002, p. 437; Lehmann, 2012, p. 210, note 20; Klein, 2016, p. 282).

  48. 48.

    Kurt Gebauer (1909–1942), classical archaeologist, was on the staff of the Kerameikos excavations from 1936.

  49. 49.

    Gabriel Welter (1890–1954), classical archaeologist, had been in Greece since 1920. He carried out numerous excavations at different locations as both freelancer and employee of the DAI Berlin.

  50. 50.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Kübler to Schede, 26.5.1941.

  51. 51.

    For more on the units of the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg (ERR), that, as a National Socialist party organisation, was in general dedicated to appropriating cultural property during the war: Losemann, 1977, p. 153; Petrakos 1994, p. 132; Hiller von Gaertringen, 1995, p. 481; Miller, 2012, p. 244.

  52. 52.

    On the special role of the German Olympia excavation for the National Socialists ideology: Hiller von Gaertringen, 1989.

  53. 53.

    Ulf Jantzen (1909–2000), classical archaeologist, worked for the DAI from 1937. During the occupation he worked for the Kunstschutz (Jantzen, 1995; Flouda, 2017, p. 13).

  54. 54.

    “The activities of Harder-Lauffer-Vacano” refers to the unit of the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg’s Sonderstab Altertumskunde [Antiquities Unit] (Losemann, 1977, p. 153).

  55. 55.

    For more on the neolithic excavation in Sparta: Petrakos 1994, p. 133; Hiller von Gaertringen, 1995, p. 486; Altekamp, 2008, p. 200, note 147; Miller, 2012, p. 244.

  56. 56.

    For more on the topographical research at Chalcis: Petrakos 1994 p. 120; Hiller von Gaertringen, 1995, pp. 484–485; Miller, 2012, p. 245.

  57. 57.

    “The Reinerth-Group” is a disparaging reference to the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg’s Sonderstab Vor- und Frühgeschichte [Special Staff for Early and Pre-History] (Losemann, 1977, p. 249; Bollmus 2016). Hans Reinerth (1900–1990), pre-historian, led this organisation from 1940. As early as 1933 there had been considerable tension with the DAI (Vigener, 2012, p. 67); s. DAI Berlin, Central Archive, from the estate of Theodor Wiegand Box 18, letter from Herzog to Rodenwaldt, 19.3.1933.

  58. 58.

    Rudolf Stampfuss (1904–1978), pre-historian, worked for the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg from 1940. From 1942 to 1943 he was responsible for the ‘safeguarding’, i.e. theft of pre- and early historical discoveries in the occupied eastern regions.

  59. 59.

    Kimon Grundmann (1891–1968) began working at the DAI Athen in 1928 as an administrative employee. He gradually worked his way into archaeological matters, with a focus on pre-historical excavations. In 1942 he was promoted to the role of academic assistant at the DAI Athen and took charge of his own excavation projects.

  60. 60.

    Erich Boehringer, classical archaeologist, was employed as a cultural attaché at the Deutsche Gesandtschaft in Athens from March 1940 to April 1943 (Vigener, 2016, p. 315).

  61. 61.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Wrede to Schede, 13.10.1941.

  62. 62.

    For more on the removal of the ERR from Greece: Losemann, 1977, p. 156; Petrakos Πετράκος, 1994, p. 125; Hiller von Gaertringen, 1995, p. 488. Resistance was primarily directed at the Sonderstab Vor- und Frühgeschichte, led by Reinerth. Staff at the DAI and Auswärtiges Amt had good relations with the staff of the other units (Altertumskunde and Athos).

  63. 63.

    For more on the restrictions placed on all archaeological activities in Greece from 1943: DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Wrede to Altenburg and Boehringer, 11.1.1943. The last evidence of activity is apparently the finding of a female statue in Thessaloniki by the Wehrmacht (Hiller von Gaertringen, 1995, p. 465, note 10).

  64. 64.

    For more on this see the reports in the archaeological journals during the war years: Archäologischer Anzeiger, Αρχαιολογικό Δελτίον, Αρχαιολογική Εφημερής, Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene e delle Missioni Italiane in Oriente, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Annual of the British School at Athens, American Journal of Archaeology (cf. Dunbabin, 1944; Πετράκος, 2013, p. 307). Erich Boehringer, the Deutsche Gesandtschaft’s cultural attaché in Athens, saw to it that the foreign schools were not shut and, albeit with limitations, could continue their research; DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Biographica-Mappe Erich Boehringer, statements from Robert Demangel and Octave Merlier, 4.6.1948; and from the estate of Erich Boehringer in the Christof Boehringer Archive.

  65. 65.

    DAI Athen, Archive, Box 21, letter from Martin to Jantzen, 6.8.1968.

  66. 66.

    DAI Athen, Archive, Box 21, letter from P. Gercke to Martin, 12.8.1968.

  67. 67.

    See note 39 above.

  68. 68.

    Ernst Kirsten (1911–1987), ancient historian and historical geographer, worked for the Kunstschutz in Greece from 1941.

  69. 69.

    Πετράκος, 1994, p. 143; Hiller von Gaertringen, 1995, p. 475, note 64.

  70. 70.

    Friedrich Matz (1890–1974), classical archaeologist, came to Greece during the occupation for research purposes.

  71. 71.

    Relations with the representatives of the Greek collaborationist government still need to be explored; for more on Konstantinos Logothetopoulos, who already had a close relationship with German archaeological circles before the war.

  72. 72.

    For more on this see, for example, the reviews by Dunbabin, 1952; Immerwahr, 1952; Delvoye, 1953.

  73. 73.

    DAI, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Weickert to Kunze, 30.9.1950; letter from Kunze to Weickert, 4.10.1950: “uncultivated draft of the introduction”.

  74. 74.

    Kübler and Kunze refer to “increased difficulties” that they faced.

  75. 75.

    See reviews by Brann, 1956; Boardman, 1957; Amandry, 1958.

  76. 76.

    For more on the influence of nationalist ideology (racial theory and anti-semitism) on archaeological publications from the 1930s and 1940s: Hiller von Gaertringen, 1989; Junker, 1997, pp. 42, 73; Altekamp, 2014, pp. 25, 97; Chapoutot, 2014.

  77. 77.

    Ludwig Curtius (1874–1954), classical archaeologist, was First Secretary of the DAI in Rome from 1928–1937. The National Socialists pushed him into early retirement.

  78. 78.

    DAI Berlin, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, excerpt from a letter by Curtius, 7.7.1947. Curtius refers to a conversation with the Swedish archaeologist Erik Sjöqvist (1903–1975), who had visited Greece shortly before.

  79. 79.

    Ioannis Miliadis (1895–1975), classical archaeologist, studied in Greece and Germany. From 1925 he held important positions in the Greek Antiquities Service. From 1940 to 1960 he was in charge of the Akropolis.

  80. 80.

    See note 41 above.

  81. 81.

    DAI, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Miliadis to Brommer (transcript of a translation), 30.8.1948.

  82. 82.

    A recent five-volume publication by Basileios Petrakos provides detailed information on this subject (Petrakos 2021). A summary or review is in preparation by the author.

  83. 83.

    Roland Hampe (1908–1981), classical archaeologist, worked as an interpreter for the Wehrmacht during the occupation and had close contacts to the Kunstschutz and DAI. As Oberfähnrich [Senior Officer Cadet] on the staff of General Felmy he was involved in organising the retreat of the Wehrmacht from Greece in 1944.

  84. 84.

    The reference is to the Greek Report on the Protection of Cultural Property.

  85. 85.

    DAI, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Weickert to Kunze, 23.10.1950.

  86. 86.

    DAI, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Weickert to Wolff-Metternich, 30.11.1950.

  87. 87.

    The reference is to Antonios Keramopoulos (1870–1960), Head of the Administration of Antiquities at the Greek Ministry of Religion and National Education during the occupation. Keramopoulos continued to work for the ministry after the war. In the Report on the Protection of Cultural Property from 1946 his name first appears in the appendix (correspondence with the authorities of the occupying power). Several respected archaeologists were involved in drawing up the actual list of damages. In particular, the contributions of Christos Karouzos and Marinos Kalligas are stressed in the introduction; see also Petrakos 1994.

  88. 88.

    DAI, Central Archive, Old Registry File 10–40, letter from Kunze to Weickert, 12.12.1950.

  89. 89.

    Tiverios, 2013, p. 160.

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Acknowledgements

To date numerous colleagues have supported me in my archive research in Athens and Berlin. I would particularly like to express my gratitude to Stefan Altekamp, Katharina Brandt, Klaus Hallof, Joachim Heiden, Julia Hiller von Gaertringen, Torsten Israel, Lucia van der Linde, Johanna Mueller von der Haegen, Basileios Petrakos, Reinhard Senff, Katja Sporn and Isolde Stark. To aid understanding, quotations from German documents have been translated into English. The original quotations can be found in the archives listed here. An annotated publication of the German sources is currently being prepared. This article was completed in early 2017. More recent publications could only be considered in part after the peer review.

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    Alexandra Kankeleit

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Kankeleit, A. (2023). “Unrestricted Research Opportunities” with “Unpleasant Surprises” – German Archaeologists in Greece During the National Socialist Era. In: Eickhoff, M., Modl, D., Meheux, K., Nuijten, E. (eds) National-Socialist Archaeology in Europe and its Legacies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28024-5_11

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