Assessment of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Clinical Child Psychology

Part of the book series: Autism and Child Psychopathology Series ((ACPS))

  • 1949 Accesses

Abstract

Much has been done in the improvement for the evidence base of child assessment over the past several decades. In particular, the rise of evidence-based practice has seen the development and further refinement of a number of tools for the child anxiety practitioner and/or researcher’s assessment armamentarium. This chapter reviews a number of these evidence-based instruments, observations, and protocols following a brief review of the background surrounding child anxiety and anxiety disorders. We conclude with sections on conceptualizing anxiety in children and adolescents and additional recommendations and considerations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
EUR 29.95
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
EUR 459.03
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
EUR 588.49
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
EUR 588.49
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles (Vol. 30). University of Vermont Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles: An integrated system of multi-informant assessment. Aseba.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2007). Multicultural supplement to the manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. University of Vermont Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, A. P., Kennedy, P. J., Dockray, S., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2017). The Trier Social Stress Test: principles and practice. Neurobiology of Stress, 6, 113–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aman, M. G., Tassé, M. J., Rojahn, J., & Hammer, D. (1996). The Nisonger CBRF: A child behavior rating form for children with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 17(1), 41–57.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartels, M., Beijsterveldt, C., Derks, E., Stroet, T., Polderman, T., Hudziak, J., & Boomsma, D. (2007). Young Netherlands Twin Register (Y-NTR): A longitudinal multiple informant study of problem behavior. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10(1), 3–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beidel, D. C., & Turner, S. M. (1997). At risk for anxiety: I. Psychopathology in the offspring of anxious parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 918–924.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Brent, D. A., Chiappetta, L., Bridge, J., Monga, S., & Baugher, M. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): A replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(10), 1230–1236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Ehmann, M., Axelson, D. A., Goldstein, B. I., Monk, K., Kalas, C., et al. (2009). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children (K-SADS-PL) for the assessment of preschool children–a preliminary psychometric study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(7), 680–686.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., & Neer, S. M. (1997). The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): Scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(4), 545–553.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bögels, S. M., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. L. (2006). Family issues in child anxiety: Attachment, family functioning, parental rearing and beliefs. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(7), 834–856.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourne, E. J. (2015). The anxiety and phobia workbook. New Harbinger Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. C., Ginsburg, G. S., Lambert, S. F., Cooley, M. R., & Campbell, K. D. (2003). Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): Psychometric properties in an African-American parochial high school sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(10), 1188–1196.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bravo, M., Ribera, J., Rubio-Stipec, M., Canino, G., Shrout, P., Ramírez, R., et al. (2001). Test-retest reliability of the Spanish version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(5), 433–444.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broeren, S., & Muris, P. (2009). The relation between cognitive development and anxiety phenomena in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(6), 702–709.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown-Jacobsen, A. M., Wallace, D. P., & Whiteside, S. P. (2011). Multimethod, multi-informant agreement, and positive predictive value in the identification of child anxiety disorders using the SCAS and ADIS-C. Assessment, 18(3), 382–392.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burstein, M., Beesdo-Baum, K., He, J. P., & Merikangas, K. R. (2014). Threshold and subthreshold generalized anxiety disorder among US adolescents: prevalence, sociodemographic, and clinical characteristics. Psychological Medicine, 44(11), 2351–2362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buske-Kirschbaum, A., Jobst, S., Wustmans, A., Kirschbaum, C., Rauh, W., & Hellhammer, D. (1997). Attenuated free cortisol response to psychosocial stress in children with atopic dermatitis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59(4), 419–426.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castagna, P. J., Davis, T. E., & Lilly, M. E. (2016). The behavioral avoidance task with anxious youth: A review of procedures, properties, and criticisms. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 20(2), 162–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castagna, P. J., Calamia, M., & Davis III, T. E. (2019). Can worry and physiological anxiety uniquely predict children and adolescents’ academic achievement and intelligence?. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 10(1), 53–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castagna, P. J., Davis, T. E., & Lilly, M. E. (2017). The behavioral avoidance task with anxious youth: A review of procedures, properties, and criticisms. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 20(2), 162–184.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Albano, A. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Cognitive processing in children: Relation to anxiety and family influences. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25(2), 170–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colonnesi, C., Draijer, E. M., Geert, J., Stams, J. M., Van der Bruggen, C. O., Bögels, S. M., & Noom, M. J. (2011). The Relation Between Insecure Attachment and Child Anxiety: A Meta Analytic Review. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 630–645.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craske, M. E., Poulton, R., Tsao, J. C. I., & Plotkin, D. (2001). Paths to panic disorder/agoraphobia: An exploratory analysis from age 3 to 21 in an unselected birth cohort. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 556–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craske, M. G., Rauch, S. L., Ursano, R., Prenoveau, J., Pine, D. S., & Zinbarg, R. E. (2009). What is an anxiety disorder? Depression and Anxiety, 26, 1066–1085.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C. C., Zbozinek, T., & Vervliet, B. (2014). Maximizing exposure therapy: An inhibitory learning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 10–23.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier, M., Gillihan, S. J., & Powers, M. B. (2011). Issues in differential diagnosis: phobias and phobic conditions. In Handbook of child and adolescent anxiety disorders (pp. 7–22). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E. (2009). PTSD, anxiety, and phobia. In Treating childhood psychopathology and developmental disabilities (pp. 183–220). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E., III. (2012). Where to from here for ASD and anxiety? Lessons learned from child anxiety and the issue of DSM-5. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 358–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E., III, Castagna, P., Shaheen, G., & Reuther, E. T. (2017). Anxiety disorders. In J. L. Matson (Ed.), Autism and child psychopathology series. Handbook of social behavior and skills in children (pp. 293–322). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E., III, May, A., & Whiting, S. E. (2011). Evidence-based treatment of anxiety and phobia in children and adolescents: Current status and effects on the emotional response. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(4), 592–602.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E., III, Moree, B., Dempsey, T., Hess, J., Jenkins, W. S., Fodstad, J. C., & Matson, J. L. (2012). The effects of communication deficits on anxiety symptoms in infants and toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Behavior Therapy, 43, 142–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E., III, & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Empirically supported treatments for specific phobia in children: Do efficacious treatments address the components of a phobic response? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 12(2), 144–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D., Casey, B. J., Dahl, R. E., Birahmer, B., Williamson, D. E., Thomas, K. M., et al. (2000). A pilot study of amygdala volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 48(1), 51–57.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Los Reyes, A. (2011). Introduction to the special section: More than measurement error: Discovering meaning behind informant discrepancies in clinical assessments of children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(1), 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Degnan, K. A., Almas, A. N., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Temperament and the environment in the etiology of childhood anxiety. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(4), 497–517.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiBartolo, P. M., & Grills, A. E. (2006). Who is best at predicting children’s anxiety in response to a social evaluative task?: A comparison of child, parent, and teacher reports. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20(5), 630–645.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dierker, L. C., Albano, A. M., Clarke, G. N., Heimberg, R. G., Kendall, P. C., Merikangas, K. R., et al. (2001). Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), 929–936.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diler, R. S. (2003). Panic disorder in children and adolescents. Yonsei Medical Journal, 44(1), 174–179.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drake, K. L., & Ginsburg, G. S. (2012). Family factors in the development, treatment, and prevention of childhood anxiety disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15(2), 144–162.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebesutani, C., Okamura, K., Higa-McMillan, C., & Chorpita, B. F. (2011). A psychometric analysis of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children-Parent Version in a school sample. Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 406–416.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Einfeld, S., & Tonge, B. J. (2002). Developmental behaviour checklist (DBC). Victoria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eley, T. C., Bolton, D., O’Connor, T. G., Perrin, S., Smith, P., & Plomin, R. (2003). A twin study of anxiety related behaviours in pre-school children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry., 44(7), 945–960.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Etkin, R. G., Shimshoni, Y., Lebowitz, E. R., & Silverman, W. K. (2020). Using evaluative criteria to review youth anxiety measures, part i: Self-report. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Etkin, A., Prater, K. E., Schatzberg, A. F., Menon, V., & Greicius, M. D. (2009). Disrupted amygdalar subregion functional connectivity and evidence of a compensatory network in generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(12), 1361–1372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, R., Thirlwall, K., Cooper, P., & Creswell, C. (2017). Using symptom and interference questionnaires to identify recovery among children with anxiety disorders. Psychological Assessment, 29(7), 835.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency, comorbidity, and psychosocial impairment of specific phobia in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 221–231.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foley, P., & Kirschbaum, C. (2010). Human hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis responses to acute psychosocial stress in laboratory settings. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(1), 91–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frala, J. L., Leen-Feldner, E. W., Blumenthal, H., & Barreto, C. C. (2010). Relations among perceived control over anxiety-related events, worry, and generalized anxiety disorder in a sample of adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(2), 237–247.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Barry, C. T., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2010). Clinical assessment of child and adolescent personality and behavior (3rd ed.). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisch, J. U., Häusser, J. A., & Mojzisch, A. (2015). The Trier Social Stress Test as a paradigm to study how people respond to threat in social interactions. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 14.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gazelle, H., & Ladd, G. W. (2003). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion: A diathesis-stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood. Child Development, 74(1), 257–278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, R. D., & Roy-Byrne, P. (2006). Panic and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Depression and Anxiety, 23(3), 124–132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, S. A., Berkovits, L. D., & Baker, B. L. (2015). Symptoms and development of anxiety in children with or without intellectual disability. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44(1), 137–144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grills, A. E., & Ollendick, T. H. (2003). Multiple informant agreement and the anxiety disorders interview schedule for parents and children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(1), 30–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grisham, J. R., Brown, T. A., & Campbell, L. A. (2004). The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV (ADIS-IV). In M. J. Hilsenroth & D. L. Segal (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, Vol. 2. Personality assessment (pp. 163–177). Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guerrero, A. P., Hishinuma, E. S., Andrade, N. N., Nishimura, S. T., & Cunanan, V. L. (2006). Correlations among socioeconomic and family factors and academic, behavioral, and emotional difficulties in Filipino adolescents in Hawai’i. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52(4), 343–359.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gullone, E., & Lane, B. (2002). The Fear Survey Schedule for Children-II: a validity examination across response format and instruction type. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9(1), 55–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurley, J. R. (2011). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale: Second edition. In S. Goldstein & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Encyclopedia of child behavior and development. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, W. W., Crocetti, E., Raaijmakers, Q. A., & Meeus, W. H. (2011). A meta-analysis of the cross-cultural psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(1), 80–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hallett, V., Ronald, A., Rijsdijk, F., & Eley, T. C. (2009). Phenotypic and genetic differentiation of anxiety-relate behaviors in middle childhood. Depression and Anxiety, 26(4), 316–324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamblin, R. J., Salloum, A., Andel, R., Nadeau, J. M., McBride, N. M., Lewin, A. B., & Storch, E. A. (2016). Predictors of parent-child agreement on child anxiety diagnoses on the ADIS-IV-C/P. Psychiatry Research, 245, 303–310.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammerness, P., Harpold, T., Petty, C., Menard, C., Zar-Kessler, C., & Biederman, J. (2008). Characterizing non-OCD anxiety disorders in psychiatrically referred children and adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 105, 213–219.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, S. N. (2001). Clinical applications of analogue behavioral observation: Dimensions of psychometric evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 13(1), 73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hearn, C. S., Donovan, C. L., Spence, S. H., March, S., & Holmes, M. C. (2017). What’s the worry with social anxiety? Comparing cognitive processes in children with generalized anxiety disorder and social anxiety disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 48(5), 786–795.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hellhammer, D. H., Wüst, S., & Kudielka, B. M. (2009). Salivary cortisol as a biomarker in stress research. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(2), 163–171.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herbert, J. D., Rheingold, A. A., & Brandsma, L. L. (2010). Assessment of social anxiety and social phobia. In S. G. Hofmann & P. M. Dibartolo (Eds.), Social anxiety: Clinical, developmental, and social perspectives (pp. 23–64). Elsevier Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higa-McMillan, C. K., Fancis, S. E., & Chorpita, B. F. (2014). In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (3rd ed., pp. 171–186). The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmeijer-Sevink, M. K., Batelaan, N. M., van Megen, H. J., Penninx, B. W., Cath, D. C., van den Hout, M. A., & van Balkom, A. J. (2012). Clinical relevance of comorbidity in anxiety disorders: a report from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA). Journal of Affective Disorders, 137(1–3), 106–112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, J. L., & Dodd, H. F. (2012). Informing early intervention: Preschool predictors of anxiety disorders in middle childhood. PLoS One, 7(8), e42359.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Isolan, L., Salum, G. A., Osowski, A. T., Amaro, E., & Manfro, G. G. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) in Brazilian children and adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(5), 741–748.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Rubio-Stipec, M., Canino, G., Bird, H. R., Dulcan, M. K., Schwab-Stone, M. E., & Lahey, B. B. (1999). Parent and child contributions to diagnosis of mental disorder: Are both informants always necessary? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(12), 1569–1579.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K. D. (2010). The unstructured clinical interview. Journal of Counseling and Development, 88(2), 220–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J. (1997). Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity. Child Development, 68, 139–143.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamphaus, R. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2007). BASC-2 behavioral and emotional screening system manual. Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U. M. A., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., ... & Ryan, N. (1996). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 980–988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U. M. A., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-age Children- Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 980–988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., & Schweder, A. E. (2004). The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children: Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL). In M. J. Hilsenroth & D. L. Segal (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, Vol. 2. Personality assessment (pp. 247–255). Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kearney, C. A., Albano, A. M., Eisen, A. R., Allan, W. D., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). The phenomenology of panic disorder in youngsters: An empirical study of a clinical sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 49–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, C. M. (2015). The Autism Spectrum Addendum to the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule. Unpublished manual.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, C. M., Kendall, P. C., Berry, L., Souders, M. C., Franklin, M. E., Schultz, R. T., et al. (2014). Traditional and atypical presentation of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 2851–2861.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, C. M., Renno, P., Kendall, P. C., Wood, J. J., & Storch, E. A. (2017). Anxiety disorders interview schedule–autism addendum: Reliability and validity in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 46(1), 88–100.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., Safford, S., Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Webb, A. (2004). Child anxiety treatment: outcomes in adolescence and impact on substance use and depression at 7.4-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(2), 276.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Wittchen, H. (2012). Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence and Lifetime Morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 21(3), 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1359

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’–a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28(1–2), 76–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kragh, A. R., Folke, F., Andelius, L., Ries, E. S., Rasmussen, R. V., & Hansen, C. M. (2019). Evaluation of tools to assess psychological distress: how to measure psychological stress reactions in citizen responders–a systematic review. BMC Emergency Medicine, 19, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreiser, N. L., & White, S. W. (2014). Assessment of social anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 21(1), 18–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristensen, H. (2000). Selective mutism and comorbidity with developmental disorder/delay, anxiety disorder, and elimination disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(2), 249–256.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langer, D. A., Wood, J. J., Bergman, R. L., & Piacentini, J. C. (2010). A multitrait–multimethod analysis of the construct validity of child anxiety disorders in a clinical sample. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41(5), 549–561.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Last, C. G., Perrin, S., Hersen, M., & Kazdin, A. E. (1992). DSM-III-R anxiety disorders in children: Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1070–1076.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, R. D., & De Los Reyes, A. (2013). Testing informant discrepancies as predictors of early adolescent psychopathology: Why difference scores cannot tell you what you want to know and how polynomial regression may. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(1), 1–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laurent, H. K., Stroud, L. R., Brush, B., D’Angelo, C., & Granger, D. A. (2015). Secretory IgA reactivity to social threat in youth: Relations with HPA, ANS, and behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 59, 81–90.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lebowitz, E. R. (2017). Mother and child ratings of child anxiety: Associations with behavioral avoidance and the role of family accommodation. Parenting, 17(2), 124–142.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Zinbarg, R., Seeley, J. R., Lewinsohn, M., & Sack, W. H. (1997). Lifetime comorbidity among anxiety disorders and between anxiety disorders and other mental disorders in adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11(4), 377–394.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewczyk, C. M., Garland, A. F., Hurlburt, M. S., Gearity, J., & Hough, R. L. (2003). Comparing DISC-IV and clinician diagnoses among youths receiving public mental health services. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(3), 349–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leyfer, O. T., Folstein, S. E., Bacalman, S., Davis, N. O., Dinh, E., Morgan, J., et al. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(7), 849–861.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S. (1997). Manual for the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC). Multi Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S. (2013). Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children- Second edition: Technical manual. Multi Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., Wilkins, J., & Macken, J. (2008). The relationship of challenging behaviors to severity and symptoms of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 2(1), 29–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masi, G., Mucci, M., Favilla, L., Romano, R., & Poli, P. (1999). Symptomatology and comorbidity of generalized anxiety disorder in children and adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 40(3), 210–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McClure, E. B., Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., Parrish, J. M., Adler, A., Blair, R. J. R., et al. (2007). Abnormal attention modulation of the fear circuit function in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(1), 97–106.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., & King, K. (2015). Developmental trajectories of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 311–323.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McTate, E. A., & Leffler, J. M. (2017). Diagnosing disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: Integrating semi-structured and unstructured interviews. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22(2), 187–203.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Study Replication – Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammadi, M. R., Pourdehghan, P., Mostafavi, S., Hooshyari, Z., Ahmadi, N., & Khaleghi, A. (2020). Generalized anxiety disorder: Prevalence, predictors, and comorbidity in children and adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, T. L. (2004). Treatment of social phobia in children and adolescents. In P. M. Barrett & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), Handbook of interventions that work with children and adolescents: Prevention and treatment (pp. 171–186). Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P. E. H. M., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., Ollendick, T. H., King, N. J., Meesters, C., & Van Kessel, C. (2002). What is the revised fear survey schedule for children measuring? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(11), 1317–1326.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najafpour, E., Asl-Aminabadi, N., Nuroloyuni, S., Jamali, Z., & Shirazi, S. (2017). Can galvanic skin conductance be used as an objective indicator of children’s anxiety in the dental setting? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry, 9(3), e377.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nebel-Schwalm, M. S., & Davis, T. E. (2013). Nature and etiology of anxiety disorders. In E. A. Storch & D. McKay (Eds.), Handbook of treating variants and complications in anxiety disorders (pp. 3–8). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H. (1983). Reliability and validity of the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-R). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21(6), 685–692.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H. (1981). Assessment of social interaction skills in school children. Behavioral Counseling Quarterly.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H., Davis, T. E., & Muris, P. (2004). Treatment of specific phobia in children and adolescents. In P. M. Barrett & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), Handbook of interventions that work with children and adolescents: Prevention and treatment (pp. 273–276). Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H., Öst, L. G., Reuterskiöld, L., Costa, N., Cederlund, R., Sirbu, C., Davis, T. E., & Jarrett, M. A. (2009). One-session treatment of specific phobias in youth: A randomized clinical trial in the United States and Sweden. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 504.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palitz, S. A., Davis, J. P., & Kendall, P. C. (2019). Anxiety disorders. In M. J. Prinstein, E. A. Youngstrom, E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Treatment of disorders in childhood and adolescence (4th ed., pp. 281–285). The Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, A. I., Muris, P., Barros, L., Goes, R., Marques, T., & Russo, V. (2015). Agreement and discrepancy between mother and child in the evaluation of children’s anxiety symptoms and anxiety life interference. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(3), 327–337.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Edgar, K., & Fox, N. A. (2005). Temperament and anxiety disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(4), 681–706.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polanczyk, G. V., Salum, G. A., & Sugaya, L. S. (2015). A meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinsloo, G. E., Derman, W. E., Lambert, M. I., & Rauch, H. L. (2013). The effect of a single session of short duration biofeedback-induced deep breathing on measures of heart rate variability during laboratory-induced cognitive stress: A pilot study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 38(2), 81–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reardon, T. C., Gray, K. M., & Melvin, G. A. (2015). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with intellectual disability: Prevalence and assessment. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 36, 175–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, S., & Valenti-Hein, D. (1994). Development of a psychopathology rating scale for children with mental retardation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reuterskiöld, L., Öst, L. G., & Ollendick, T. (2008). Exploring child and parent factors in the diagnostic agreement on the anxiety disorders interview schedule. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 30(4), 279–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, S., Wilson, C., Austin, J., & Hooper, L. (2012). Effects of psychotherapy for anxiety in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Clinical psychology Review, 32(4), 251–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (2012). RCMAS-2 Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (2nd ed.). Giunti O.S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, N., Parker, K. C., & Dagnone, M. (2005). Comparison of clinical diagnoses, NIMH-DISC-IV Diagnoses and SCL-90-R ratings in an adolescent psychiatric inpatient unit: A brief report. The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review, 14(4), 103.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(1), 28–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, C., Skinner, D., Serekoane, M., & Ross, M. W. (2011). A qualitative study of the cultural appropriateness of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV) in South Africa. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46(8), 743–751.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & Albano, A. M. (1996). Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Child version. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., La Greca, A., & Wasserstein, S. (1995). What do children worry about? Worries and their relation to anxiety. Child Development, 66, 671–686.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 380–411.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Saavedra, L. M., & Pina, A. A. (2001). Test-retest reliability of anxiety symptoms and diagnoses with the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: child and parent versions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), 937–944.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H., Zubrick, S. R., & Lawrence, D. (2017). A profile of social, separation and generalized anxiety disorders in an Australian nationally representative sample of children and adolescents: Prevalence, comorbidity and correlates. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 52(5), 446–460.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 47.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Su, L., Wang, K., Fan, F., Su, Y., & Gao, X. (2008). Reliability and validity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) in Chinese children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(4), 612–621.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suhr, J. A. (2015). Psychological assessment: A problem-solving approach. Guilford Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ung, D., Arnold, E. B., De Nadai, A. S., Lewin, A. B., Phares, V., Murphy, T. K., & Storch, E. A. (2014). Inter-rater reliability of the anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV in high-functioning youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 26(1), 53–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, S. A., Aldao, A., & De Los Reyes, A. (2012). Implementing clinically feasible psychophysiological measures in evidence-based assessments of adolescent social anxiety. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Meter, A., Youngstrom, E., Youngstrom, J. K., Ollendick, T., Demeter, C., & Findling, R. L. (2014). Clinical decision making about child and adolescent anxiety disorders using the Achenbach system of empirically based assessment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 43(4), 552–565.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van Steensel, F. J., Bögels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(3), 302.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van Steensel, F. J., Deutschman, A. A., & Bögels, S. M. (2013). Examining the Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorder-71 as an assessment tool for anxiety in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 17(6), 681–692.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Steensel, F. J., & Heeman, E. J. (2017). Anxiety levels in children with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(7), 1753–1767.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vasa, R. A., Mazurek, M. O., Mahajan, R., Bennett, A. E., Bernal, M. P., Nozzolillo, A. A., et al. (2016). Assessment and treatment of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 137(Supplement 2), 115–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vine, M., Stoep, A. V., Bell, J., Rhew, I. C., Gudmundsen, G., & McCauley, E. (2012). Associations between household and neighborhood income and anxiety symptoms in young adolescents. Depression and Anxiety, 29(9), 824–832.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., & Costa, N. M. (2005). Developmental differences in the expression of childhood anxiety symptoms and fears. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(7), 656–663.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. W., Lerner, M. D., McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., Ginsburg, G. S., Kerns, C., et al. (2015). Anxiety in youth with and without autism spectrum disorder: Examination of factorial equivalence. Behavior Therapy, 46(1), 40–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitmore, M. J., Kim-Spoon, J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2014). Generalized anxiety disorder and social anxiety disorder in youth: are they distinguishable? Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 45(4), 456–463.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wigham, S., & McConachie, H. (2014). Systematic review of the properties of tools used to measure outcomes in anxiety intervention studies for children with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS One, 9(1), e85268.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. J., Piacentini, J. C., Bergman, R. L., McCracken, J., & Barrios, V. (2002). Concurrent validity of the anxiety disorders section of the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: child and parent versions. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(3), 335–342.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wren, F. J., Berg, E. A., Heiden, L. A., Kinnamon, C. J., Ohlson, L. A., Bridge, J. A., et al. (2007). Childhood anxiety in a diverse primary care population: Parent-child reports, ethnicity and SCARED factor structure. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(3), 332–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yim, I. S., Quas, J. A., Rush, E. B., Granger, D. A., & Skoluda, N. (2015). Experimental manipulation of the Trier Social Stress Test-Modified (TSST-M) to vary arousal across development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 57, 61–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Youngstrom, E. A., Van Meter, A., Frazier, T. W., Hunsley, J., Prinstein, M. J., Ong, M. L., & Youngstrom, J. K. (2017). Evidence-based assessment as an integrative model for applying psychological science to guide the voyage of treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24(4), 331–363.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paige Adenuga .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Adenuga, P., Picou, P., Dupré, A.S., Davis, T.E. (2023). Assessment of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents. In: Matson, J.L. (eds) Handbook of Clinical Child Psychology. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24926-6_47

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Navigation