Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of evidence-based instruments for the assessment of pediatric anxiety disorders from both categorical and dimensional perspectives. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of a categorical perspective to pediatric anxiety assessment and how interview schedules best capture this perspective. This is followed by a summary of the most widely used interview schedules to assess pediatric anxiety, including the evidence base for accomplishing specific assessment goals (i.e., diagnosis and treatment evaluation). The chapter follows with a brief discussion on a dimensional perspective and how rating scales best capture this perspective. This is followed by a summary of the most widely used rating scales for assessing pediatric anxiety, including research support for their use across contexts (i.e., identifying and quantifying anxiety, screening, and treatment evaluation). Next is a brief summary of objective measures of pediatric anxiety. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future research directions.
Author Note:
All authors affiliated with the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at the Center for Children and Families of the Department of Psychology at Florida International University.
This manuscript was supported in part by a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH079943).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Costello J, Egger HL, Copeland W, Erkanli A, Angold A. The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: Phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity. In: Silverman WK, Field AP, editors. Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
Last CG, Perrin S, Hersen M, Kazdin AE. DSM-III-R anxiety disorders in children: sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(6):1070–6.
Silverman WK, Ollendick TH. Assessment of child and adolescent anxiety disorders. In: Hunsley J, Mash EJ, editors. A guide to assessments that work. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008.
Chorpita BF, Barlow DH. The development of anxiety: the role of control in the early environment. Psychol Bull. 1998;124(1):3–21. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.3.
Compton SN, Burns BJ, Egger HL, Robertson E. Review of the evidence base for treatment of childhood psychopathology: internalizing disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002;70(6):1240–66.
Saavedra LM, Silverman WK. Classification of anxiety disorders in children: what a difference two decades make. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2002;14(2):87–100.
Silverman WK, Ollendick TH. Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2005;34(3):380–411.
Lang PJ. Fear reduction and fear behavior. In: Schlein J, editor. Research in psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1968.
Field AP, Hawdin JA, Lester KJ. Information processing biases in child and adolescent anxiety: a developmental perspective. In: Silverman WK, Field AP, editors. Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
Pine D. The brain and behavior in childhood anxiety disorders. In: Silverman WK, Field AP, editors. Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders. 4th ed., revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
Mash E, Terdal LG. Behavioral assessment of childhood disorders. New York: Guilford Press; 1988.
Achenbach TM, McConaughy SH, Howell CT. Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychol Bull. 1987;101(2):213–32. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.213.
Klein RG. Parent–child agreement in clinical assessment of anxiety and other psychopathology: a review. J Anxiety Disord. 1991;5(2):187–98.
Silverman WK, Albano AM. Anxiety disorders interview schedule for children for DSM-IV: child and parent versions. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation; 1996.
Silverman WK, Nelles WB. The anxiety disorders interview schedule for children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1988;27(6):772–8.
Choudhury MS, Pimentel SS, Kendall PC. Childhood anxiety disorders: parent–child (dis)agreement using a structured interview for the DSM–IV. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(8):957–64.
Grills AE, Ollendick TH. Multiple informant agreement and the anxiety disorders interview schedule for parents and children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(1):30–40.
Rapee RM, Barrett PM, Dadds MR, Evans L. Reliability of the DSM–III–R childhood anxiety disorders using structured interview: interrater and parent–child agreement. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(7):984–92.
Comer JS, Kendall PC. A symptom-level examination of parent-child agreement in the diagnosis of anxious youths. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(7):878–86. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000125092.35109.c5.
Loeber R, Green SM, Lahey BB. Mental health professionals perception of the utility of children, mothers, and teachers as informants on childhood psychopathology. J Clin Child Psychol. 1990;19(2):136–43. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp1902_5.
De Los RA, Kazdin AE. Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: a critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychol Bull. 2005;131(4):483–509. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.483.
Edelbrock C. Age differences in the reliability of the psychiatric interview of the child. Child Dev. 1985;56(1):265–75. doi:10.2307/1130193.
Silverman WK, Eisen AR. Age differences in the reliability of parent and child reports of child anxious symptomatology using a structured interview. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(1):117–24.
De Los RA. Introduction to the special section: more than measurement error: discovering meaning behind informant discrepancies in clinical assessments of children and adolescents. J Clin Child Psychol. 2011;40(1):1–9. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.533405.
Guze SB, Helzer JE. The medical model and psychiatric disorders. In: Michels R, Cavenar J, editors. Psychiatry. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1987.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
World Health Organization. ICD-10 Version:2010 [Internet]. 2010 [cited 3 Jan 2012]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en. Accessed 3 Jan 2012.
Angold A, Costello EJ, Farmer EMZ, Burns BJ, Erkanli A. Impaired but undiagnosed. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38(2):129–37.
Silverman WK, Rey Y. Anxiety Disorders. In: Hersen M, Thomas JC, editors. Handbook of clinical interviewing with children. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Ltd; 2007.
Lyneham HJ, Abbott MJ, Rapee RM. Interrater reliability of the anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV: child and parent version. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(6):731–6.
Silverman WK, Saavedra LM, Pina AA. Test-retest reliability of the anxiety symptoms and diagnoses with the anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV: child and parent versions. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(8):937–44.
Angold A, Costello EJ. A test–retest reliability study of child-reported psychiatric symptoms and diagnoses using the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA-C). Psychol Med. 1995;25(4):755–62.
Angold A, Costello EJ. The Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):39–48.
Boyle MH, Offord DR, Racine YA, Szatmari P, Sanford M, Fleming JE. Adequacy of interviews vs checklists for classifying childhood psychiatric disorder based on parent reports. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(9):793–9.
Kebede M, Kebede D, Desta M, Alem A. Evaluation of the Amharic version of the diagnostic Interview of Children and Adolescents (DICA-R) in Addis Ababa. Ethiop J Health Dev. 2000;14(1):13–22.
Reich W. Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):59–66.
Ambrosini PJ. Historical development and present status of the schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children (K-SADS). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):49–58. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00016.
Ambrosini PJ, Metz C, Prabucki K, Lee J. Videotape reliability of the third revised edition of the K-SADS. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1989;28(5):723–8.
Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D, Rao U. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version [K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(7):980–8.
Shahrivar Z, Kousha M, Moallemi S, Tehrani-Doost M, Alaghband-Rad J. The reliability and validity of Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Life-time version-Persian version. Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2010;15(2):97–102. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2008.00518.x.
Breton J, Bergeron L, Valla J, Berthiaume C, St-Georges M. Diagnostic interview schedule for children (DISC-2.25) in Quebec: reliability findings in light of the MECA study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37(11):1167–74.
Ho T, Leung PW, Lee C, Tang C, Hung S, Kwong S, et al. Test-retest reliability of the Chinese version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-version 4 (DISC-IV). J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005;46(10):1135–8. doi:10.1111/j.1469–7610.2005.01435.x.
Roberts RE, Solovitz BL, Chen Y, Casat C. Retest stability of DSM-III-R diagnoses among adolescents using the diagnostic interview schedule for children (DISC-2.1C). J Abnorm Psychol. 1996;24(3):349–62.
Schwab-Stone M, Fisher P, Piacentini J, Shaffer D, Davies M, Briggs M. The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-Revised Version (DISC-R): II. Test-retest reliability. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(3):651–7.
Shaffer D, Fisher P, Lucas C, Dulcan MK, Schwab-Stone ME. NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC–IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(1):28–38.
Spitzer RL, Endicott J, Robins E. Research diagnostic criteria: rationale and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1978;35(6):773–82. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1978.01770300115013.
Guy W, Bonato R. CGI: clinical global impressions. Chevy Chase: National Institute of Mental Health; 1970.
Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33(1):159–74.
Shaffer D, Schwab-Stone M, Fisher PW, Cohen P. The diagnostic interview schedule for Children-Revised version (DISC-R): I. Preparation, field testing, interrater reliability, and acceptability. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(3):643–50. doi:10.1097/00004583–199305000–00023.
Wood J, Piacentini JC, Bergman RL, McCracken J, Barrios V. Concurrent validity of the anxiety disorders section of the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM–IV: Child and parent versions. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2002;31(3):335–42.
March J. Manual for the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Inc; 1998.
Hodges K, McKnew D, Burbach DJ, Roebuck L. Diagnostic concordance between the Child Assessment Schedule (CAS) and the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age children (K-SADS) in an outpatient sample using lay interviewers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1987;26(5):654–61.
Hodges K, McKnew D, Cytryn L, Stern L, Kline J. The Child Assessment Schedule (CAS) diagnostic interview: a report on reliability and validity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1982;21(5):468–73.
Boyle MH, Offord DR, Racine YA, Fleming JE. Evaluation of the revised ontario child health study scales. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1993;34(2):189–213. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb00979.x.
Bravo M, Ribera J, Rubio-Stipec M, et al. Test-retest reliability of the spanish version of the diagnostic interview schedule for children (DISC—IV). J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2001;29(5):433–44. doi:10.1023/A:1010499520090.
Reich W, Cottler L, McCallum K, Corwin D. Computerized interviews as a method of assessing psychopathology in children. Compr Psychiatry. 1995;36(1):40–5. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(95)90097-F.
Lyneham HJ, Rapee RM. Agreement between telephone and in-person delivery of a structured interview for anxiety disorders in children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(3):274–82. doi:10.1097/00004583-200503000-00012.
Steenhuis M, Serra M, Minderaa RB, Hartman CA. An internet version of the diagnostic interview schedule for children (DISC-IV): correspondence of the ADHD section with the paper-and-pencil version. Psychol Assess. 2009;21(2):231–4. doi:10.1037/a0015925.
Moras K, Barlow DH. Dimensional approaches to diagnosis and the problem of anxiety and depression. In: Ehlers A, Fiegenbaum W, Florin I, Margraf J, editors. Perspectives and promises of clinical psychology. New York: Plenum; 1992.
Conners C. Conners’ rating scales. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems; 1995.
Kovacs M. Manual of the children’s depression inventory. Toronto: MultiHealth Systems; 1992.
Baldwin JS, Dadds MR. Reliability and validity of parent and child versions of the multidimensional anxiety scale for children in community samples. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(2):252–60.
Fincham D, Schickerling J, Temane M, Nel D, De Roover W, Seedat S. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children among adolescents in the cape town metropole of South Africa. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(11):E147–53. doi:10.1002/da.20406.
Grills-Taquechel AE, Ollendick TH, Fisak B. Reexamination of the MASC factor structure and discriminant ability in a mixed clinical outpatient sample. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(11):942–50.
Ivarsson T. Normative data for the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) in Swedish adolescents. Nord J Psychiatry. 2006;60(2):107–13. doi:10.1080/08039480600588067.
Kingery JN, Ginsburg GS, Burstein M. Factor structure and psychometric properties of the multidimensional anxiety scale for children in an African American adolescent sample. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2009;40(2):287–300. doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0126-0.
March JS, Parker JDA, Sullivan K, Stallings P, Conners K. The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(4):554–65.
March JS, Sullivan K, James P. Test–retest reliability of the multidimensional anxiety scale for children. J Anxiety Disord. 1999;13(4):349–58.
Muris P, Merckelbach H, Ollendick T, King N, Bogie N. Three traditional and three new childhood anxiety questionnaires: their reliability and validity in a normal adolescent sample. Behav Res Ther. 2002;40(7):753–72. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01),00056-0.
Ólason DT, Sighvatsson MB, Smámi J. Psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) among Icelandic schoolchildren. Scand J Psychol. 2004;45(5):429–36. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2004.00424.x.
Osman A, Williams JE, Espenschade K, Gutierrez PM, Bailey JR, Chowdhry C. Further evidence of the reliability and validity of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) in psychiatric inpatient samples. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2009;31(3):202–14. doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9095-z.
Rynn MA, Barber JP, Khalid-Khan S, Siqueland L, Dembiski M, McCarthy KS, et al. The psychometric properties of the MASC in a pediatric psychiatric sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2006;20(2):139–57.
Villabø M, Gere M, Torgersen S, March JS, Kendall PC. Diagnostic efficiency of the child and parent versions of the multidimensional anxiety scale for children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2012;41(1):75–85. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.632350.
Yao S, Zou T, Zhu X, Abela JRZ, Auerbach RP, Tong X. Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the multidimensional anxiety scale for children among Chinese secondary school students. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2007;38(1):1–16. doi:10.1007/s10578-006-0039-0.
Yen C, Yang P, Wu Y, Hsu F, Cheng C. Factor structure, reliability and validity of the Taiwanese version of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2010;41(3):342–52. doi:10.1007/s10578-010-0172-7.
Chorpita BF, Moffitt CE, Gray J. Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(3):309–22.
Chorpita BF, Yim L, Moffitt C, Umemoto LA, Frances SE. Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: a revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behav Res Ther. 2000;38(8):835–55.
De Ross R, Gullone E, Chorpita BF. The revised child anxiety and depression scale: a psychometric investigation with Australian youth. Behav Change. 2002;19(2):90–101. doi:10.1375/bech.19.2.90.
Ang RP, Lowe PA, Yusof N. An examination of the RCMAS-2 scores across gender, ethnic background, and age in a large Asian school sample. Psychol Assess. 2011;23(4):899–910. doi:10.1037/a0023891.
Reynolds CR. Concurrent validity of What i think and feel: the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1980;48(6):774–5.
Reynolds CR. Long-term stability of scores on the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. Percept Mot Skills. 1981;53(3):702.
Reynolds CR, Richmond BO. Revised children’s manifest anxiety scale: manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services; 1985.
Varela RE, Biggs BK. Reliability and validity of the Revised Childrens Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) across samples of Mexican, Mexican American, and European American children: a preliminary investigation. Anxiety Stress Co**. 2006;19(1):67–80. doi:10.1080/10615800500499727.
Wisniewski JJ, Mulick JA, Genshaft JL, Coury DL. Test-retest reliability of the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. Percept Mot Skills. 1987;65(1):67–70.
Wolfe VV, Finch AJ, Saylor CF, Blount RL, Pallmeyer TP, Carek DJ. Negative affectivity in children: a multitrait–multimethod investigation. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(2):245–50.
Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA. Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington: ASEBA; 2001.
Conners CK, editor. Conners attention deficit scale for adolescents: self report version. Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems; 1997.
Birmaher B, Khetarpal S, Brent DA, Cully M, Balach L, Kaufman J, et al. The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(4):545–53.
Birmaher B, Brent DA, Chiappetta L, Bridge J, Monga S, Baugher M. Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a replication study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38(10):1230–6.
Boyd RC, Ginsburg GS, Lambert SF, Cooley MR, Campbell KDM. Screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED): psychometric properties in an African-American parochial high school sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(10):1188–96.
Crocetti E, Hale WW, Fermani A, Raaijmakers Q, Meeus W. Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) in the general Italian adolescent population: a validation and a comparison between Italy and the Netherlands. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(6):824–9.
Essau CA, Muris P, Ederer EM. Reliability and validity of the Spence Childrens Anxiety Scale and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders in German children. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2002;33(1):1–18.
Hale WW, Raaijmakers Q, Muris P, Meeus W. Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) in the general adolescent population. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44(3):283–90. doi:10.1097/00004583-200503000-00013.
Haley T, Puskar K, Terhorst L. Psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders in a rural high school population. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2011;24(1):23–32.
Linyan S, Kai W, Fang F, Yi S, Xue** G. Reliability and validity of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED) in Chinese children. J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22(4):612–21. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.05.011.
Muris P, Gadet B, Moulaert V, Merckelbach H. Correlations between two multidimensional anxiety scales for children. Percept Mot Skills. 1998;87(1):269–70.
Muris P, Schmidt H, Engelbrecht P, Perold M. DSM-IV-defined anxiety disorder symptoms in South African children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41(11):1360–8.
Weitkamp K, Romer G, Rosenthal S, Wiegand-Grefe S, Daniels J. German Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): reliability, validity, and cross-informant agreement in a clinical sample. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2010;4:1–8. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-4-19.
Birleson P. The validity of depressive disorder in childhood and the development of a self-rating scale: a research report. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1981;22(1):73–88. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1981.tb00533.x.
Brown-Jacobsen A, Wallace DP, Whiteside SPH. Multimethod, multi-informant agreement, and positive predictive value in the identification of child anxiety disorders using the SCAS and ADIS-C. Assessment. 2011;18(3):382–92. doi:10.1177/1073191110375792.
Hernandez-Guzman L, Bermudez-Ornelas G, Spence S, Montesinos MJG, Martinez-Guerrero JI, Villalobos JA, et al. Versión en español de la Escala de Ansiedad para Niños de Spence (SCAS) [Spanish version of the Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS)]. Rev Latinoam Psicol [Internet]. 2010 [cited 3 Jan 2012];42(1):13–24. Available from: http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA225791937&v=2.1&u=flstuniv&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w.
Ishikawa S, Sato H, Sasagawa S. Anxiety disorder symptoms in Japanese children and adolescents. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(1):104–11. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.04.003.
Mellon RC, Moutavelis AG. Structure, developmental course, and correlates of childrens anxiety disorder-related behavior in a Hellenic community sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2007;21(1):1–21. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.03.008.
Spence SH. A measure of anxiety symptoms among children. Behav Res Ther. 1998;36(5):545–66.
Spence SH, Barrett PM, Turner CM. Psychometric properties of the Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale with young adolescents. J Anxiety Disord. 2003;17(6):605–25.
Whiteside SP, Brown AM. Exploring the utility of the Spence Childrens Anxiety Scales parent- and child-report forms in a North American sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22(8):1440–6.
Chaiyawat W, Brown JK. Psychometric properties of the Thai versions of state-trait anxiety inventory for children and child medical fear scale. Res Nurs Health. 2000;23(5):406–14. doi:10.1002/1098-240X(200010)23:5<406::AID-NUR7>3.0.CO;2-I.
Cross RW, Huberty TJ. Factor analysis of the state-trait anxiety inventory for children with a sample of seventh- and eighth-grade students. J Psychoeduc Assess. 1993;11(3):232–41. doi:10.1177/073428299301100303.
Li, HCW, Lopez V. The reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the trait anxiety scale for children. Res Nurs Health. 2004;27(6):426–34. doi:10.1002/nur.20045.
Li, HCW, Lopez V. Psychometric evaluation of the Chinese version of the state anxiety scale for children. Res Nurs Health. 2004;27(3):198–207. doi:10.1002/nur.20015.
Nelson WM, Finch AJ, Kendall PC, Gordon RH. Anxiety and locus of conflict in normal children. Psychol Rep. 1977;41(2):375–8.
Papay JP, Hedl JJ. Psychometric characteristics and norms for disadvantaged third and fourth grade children on the state-trait anxiety inventory for children. J Abnorm Psychol. 1978;6(1):115–20.
Papay JP, Spielberger CD. Assessment of anxiety and achievement in kindergarten and first- and second-grade children. J Abnorm Psychol. 1986;14(2):279–86.
Psychountaki M, Zervas Y, Karteroliotis K, Spielberger C. Reliability and validity of the Greek version of the STAIC. Eur J Psychol Assess. 2003;19(2):124–30. doi:10.1027//1015-5759.19.2.124.
Schisler T, Lander J, Fowler-Kerry S. Assessing children’s state anxiety. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1998;16(2):80–7.
Spielberger CD. Manual for the state–trait anxiety inventory for children. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1973.
Ebesutani C, Bernstein A, Nakamura BJ, Chorpita BF, Weisz JR. A psychometric analysis of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale: Parent version in a clinical sample. J Abnorm Psychol. 2010;38(2):249–60.
Ebesutani C, Chorpita BF, Higa-McMillan C, Nakamura BJ, Regan J, Lynch RE. A psychometric analysis of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scales—Parent version in a school sample. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2011;39(2):173–85. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9460-8.
Chorpita BF, Daleiden EL, Moffitt C, Yim L, Umemoto LA. Assessment of tripartite factors of emotion in children and adolescents I: structural validity and normative data of an affect and arousal scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2000;22(2):141–60. doi:10.1023/A:1007584423617.
Nauta MH, Scholing A, Rapee RM, Abbott M, Spence SH, Waters A. A parent-report measure of children’s anxiety: psychometric properties and comparison with child-report in a clinic and normal sample. Behav Res Ther. 2004;42(7):813–39.
Southam-Gerow MA, Flannery-Schroeder EC, Kendall PC. A psychometric evaluation of the parent report form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children-Trait Version. J Anxiety Disord. 2003;17(4):427–46.
Muris P, Merckelbach H, Schmidt H, Mayer B. The Revised version of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED-R): factor structure in normal children. Pers Individ Dif. 1999;26(1):99–112. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98),00130-5.
Muris P, Steerneman P. The Revised version of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED-R): first evidence for its reliability and validity in a clinical sample. Br J Clin Psychol. 2001;40(1):35–44. doi:10.1348/014466501163463.
Spence SH. Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: a confirmatory factor- analytic study. J Abnorm Psychol. 1997;106(2):280–97.
Castaneda A, McCandless BR, Palermo DS. The children’s form of the manifest anxiety scale. Child Dev. 1956;27(3):327–32.
Taylor JA. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. J Abnorm Psychol. 1953;48(2):285–90.
Dadds MR, Perrin S, Yule W. Social desirability and self-reported anxiety in children: an analysis of the RCMAS Lie scale. J Abnorm Psychol. 1998;26(4):311–7.
Pina AA, Silverman WK, Saavedra LM, Weems CF. An analysis of the RCMAS Lie scale in a clinic sample of anxious children. J Anxiety Disord. 2001;15(5):443–57.
Reynolds CR, Richmond BO. Revised children’s manifest anxiety scale: second edition. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services; 2008.
Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RC, Lushene RE. Manual for the state trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1970.
Murphy KR, Davidshofer CO. Psychological testing: principles and applications. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall; 1998.
Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum associates; 1988.
Seligman LD, Ollendick TH, Langley AK, Baldacci HB. The utility of measures of child and adolescent anxiety: a meta-analytic review of the RCMAS, STAIC, and CBCL. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2004;33(3):557–65. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_13.
Mattison RE, Bagnato SJ, Brubaker BH. Diagnostic utility of the revised childrens manifest anxiety scale in children with DSM-III anxiety disorders. J Anxiety Disord. 1988;2(2):147–55. doi:10.1016/0887-6185(88),90021-7.
Hodges K. Depression and anxiety in children: a comparison of self-report questionnaires to clinical interview. Psychol Assess. 1990;2(4):376–81. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.2.4.376.
Swets JA, Pickett RM. Evaluation of diagnostic systems. Orlando: Academic; 1982.
Dierker LC, Albano AM, Clarke GN, Heimberg RG, Kendall PC, Merikangas KR, et al. Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40:929–36.
Van Gastel W, Ferdinand RF. Screening capacity of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) for DSM-IV anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(12):1046–52. doi:10.1002/da.20452.
Bögels SM, Siqueland L. Family cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents with clinical anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45(2):134–41.
Rapee RM, Abbott MJ, Lyneham HJ. Bibliotherapy for children with anxiety disorders using written materials for parents: a randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(3):436–44. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.436.
Manassis K, Mendlowitz SL, Scapillato D, Avery D, Fiksenbaum L, Freire M, et al. Group and individual cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety disorders. A randomized trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41(12):1423–30. doi:10.1097/00004583-200212000-00013.
Muris P, Meesters C, van Melick M. Treatment of childhood anxiety disorders: a preliminary comparison between cognitive–behavioral group therapy and a psychological placebo intervention. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2002;33(3–4):143–58.
Spence SH, Holmes JM, March S, Lipp OV. The feasibility and outcome of clinic plus internet delivery of cognitive-behavior therapy for childhood anxiety. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74(3):614–21.
Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology Anxiety Study Group. The Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale (PARS): development and psychometric properties. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41:1061–9.
Ginsburg GS, Keeton CP, Drazdowski TK, Riddle MA. The utility of clinicians ratings of anxiety using the Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale (PARS). Child Youth Care Forum. 2011;40(2):93–105. doi:10.1007/s10566-010-9125.
Hamilton M. The assessment of anxiety states by rating. Br J Med Psychol. 1959;32:50–5. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x.
Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW. BASC-2: behavioral assessment scale for children. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc; 2006.
Achenbach TM, Dumenci L, Rescorla LA. DSM-oriented and empirically based approaches to constructing scales from the same item pools. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2003;32(3):328–40.
Nakamura BJ, Ebesutani C, Bernstein A, Chorpita BF. A psychometric analysis of the child behavior checklist DSM-oriented scales. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2009;31(3):178–89. doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9119-8.
van Lang ND, Ferdinand RF, Oldehinkel AJ, Ormel J, Verhulst FC. Concurrent validity of the DSM-IV scales affective problems and anxiety problems of the youth self-report. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(11):1485–94. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.11.005.
Ebesutani C, Bernstein A, Nakamura BJ, Chorpita BF, Higa-McMillan C, Weisz JR. Concurrent validity of the child behavior checklist DSM-oriented scales: correspondence with DSM diagnoses and comparison to syndrome scales. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2010;32(3):373–84. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9174-9.
Aschenbrand SG, Angelosante AG, Kendall PC. Discriminant validity and clinical utility of the CBCL with anxiety-disordered youth. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2005;34(4):735–46.
Ferdinand RF. Validity of the CBCL/YSR DSM-IV scales anxiety problems and affective problems. J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22(1):126–34. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.01.008.
Egger HL, Angold A. Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47(3–4):313–37. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01618.x.
Gadow KD, Sprafkin J, Nolan EE. DSM-IV symptoms in community and clinic preschool children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(12):1383–92. doi:10.1097/00004583-200112000-00008.
Task Force on Research Diagnostic Criteria: Infancy Preschool. Research diagnostic criteria for infants and preschool children: the process and empirical support. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(12):1504–12. doi:10.1097/00004583–200312000–00018.
Egger HL, Angold A. The Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA): a structured parent interview for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in preschool children. In: Del Carmen-Wiggins R, Carter A, editors. Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental assessment. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004.
Egger HL, Erkanli A, Keeler G, Potts E, Walter BK, Angold A. Test-retest reliability of the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45(5):538–49. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000205705.71194.b8.
Spence SH, Rapee R, McDonald C, Ingram M. The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. Behav Res Ther. 2001;39(11):1293–316. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00098-X.
Bayer JK, Sanson AV, Hemphill SA. Childrens moods, fears, and worries: development of an early childhood parent questionnaire. J Emot Behav Disord. 2006;14(1):41–9. doi:10.1177/10634266060140010401.
Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA. Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families; 2000.
Three Zt. Diagnostic classification of mental health and developmental disorders of infancy and early childhood. Revised ed. Washington, DC: Zero to Three Press; 2005.
Edwards SL, Rapee RM, Kennedy SJ, Spence SH. The assessment of anxiety symptoms in preschool-aged children: the revised preschool anxiety scale. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2010;39(3):400–9. doi:10.1080/15374411003691701.
Broeren S, Muris P. Psychometric evaluation of two new parent-rating scales for measuring anxiety symptoms in young dutch children. J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22(6):949–58. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.09.008.
Goodman R. The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38(5):581–6.
Prior M, Sanson A, Oberklaid F. The Australian Temperament Project. In: Kohnstamm D, Bates J, Rothbart M, editors. Temperament in childhood. Chichester: Wiley; 1989.
Briggs-Gowan M, Carter AS. Preliminary acceptability and psychometrics of the Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): a new adult-report questionnaire. Infant Ment Health J. 1998;19(4):422–45. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0355(199824)19:4<422::AID-IMHJ5>3.0.CO;2-U.
Hamilton DI, King NJ. Reliability of a Behavioral Avoidance Test for the assessment of dog phobic children. Psychol Rep. 1991;69(1):18. doi:10.2466/PR0.69.5.18-18.
Ollendick TH, Öst L, Reuterskiöld L, et al. One-session treatment of specific phobias in youth: a randomized clinical trial in the United States and Sweden. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77(3):504–16. doi:10.1037/a0015158.
Öst L, Svensson L, Hellström K, Lindwall R. One-session treatment of specific phobias in youths: a randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2001;69(5):814–24. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.69.5.814.
Kendall PC. Treating anxiety disorders in children: results of a randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1994;62(1):100–10. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.1.100.
Beidel DC, Turner SM, Morris TL. Behavioral treatment of childhood social phobia. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(6):1072–80. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.1072.
Ferrell CB, Beidel DC, Turner SM. Assessment and treatment of socially phobic children: a cross cultural comparison. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2004;33(2):260–8. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_6.
Kazdin AE. Behavioral observation. In: Hersen M, Bellack AS, editors. Behavioral assessment: A practical handbook. 2nd ed. Oxford: Pergamon; 1981.
Barrios BA, Hartmann DP. Fears and anxieties. In: Mash EJ, Terdal LG, editors. Assessment of childhood disorders. 3rd ed. New York: Guilford; 1997.
Beidel DC, Turner SM. Childhood anxiety disorders: a guide to research and treatment. New York: Routledge; 2005.
Bauer AM, Quas JA, Boyce WT. Associations between physiological reactivity and childrens behavior: advantages of a multisystem approach. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2002;23(2):102–13. doi:10.1097/00004703-200204000-00007.
Beidel DC, Fink CM, Turner SM. Stability of anxious symptomatology in children. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1996;24(3):257–69. doi:10.1007/BF01441631.
Weems CF, Zakem AH, Costa NM, Cannon MF, Watts SE. Physiological response and childhood anxiety: association with symptoms of anxiety disorders and cognitive bias. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2005;34(4):712–23. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3404_13.
Beidel DC. Psychophysiological assessment of anxious emotional states in children. J Abnorm Psychol. 1988;97(1):80–2. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.97.1.80.
Anderson ER, Hope DA. The relationship among social phobia, objective and perceived physiological reactivity, and anxiety sensitivity in an adolescent population. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(1):18–26. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.03.011.
Goodyer IM, Park RJ, Herbert J. Psychosocial and endocrine features of chronic first-episode major depression in 8–16 year olds. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;50(5):351–7. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01),01120-9.
Pajer K, Gardner W, Rubin RT, Perel J, Neal S. Decreased cortisol levels in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(3):297–302. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.3.297.
Carrion VG, Weems CF, Ray RD, Glaser B, Hessl D, Reiss AL. Diurnal salivary cortisol in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51(7):575–82. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01),01310-5.
Granger DA, Weisz JR, Kauneckis D. Neuroendocrine reactivity, internalizing behavior problems, and control-related cognitions in clinic-referred children and adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol. 1994;103(2):267–76. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.103.2.267.
Gunnar M. Cortisol and anxiety. In: Vasey MW, Dadds MR, editors. The developmental psychopathology of anxiety. London: Oxford University Press; 2001.
Silverman WK, Kurtines WM. Anxiety and phobic disorders: a pragmatic approach. New York: Penum; 1996.
American Psychiatric Association. DSM5 Development. Available at http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx. Accessed 31 May 2012.
Brown TA, Barlow DH. Dimensional versus categorical classification of mental disorders in the fifth edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders and beyond: comment on the special section. J Abnorm Psychol. 2005;114(4):551–6.
Brown TA, Barlow DH. A proposal for a dimensional classification system based on the shared features of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders: implications for assessment and treatment. Psychol Assess. 2009;21(3):256–71. doi:10.1037/a0016608.
Hui CH, Triandis HC. Measurement in cross-cultural psychology. J Cross Cult Psychol. 1985;16(2):131–52.
Pina AA, Little M, Knight GP, Silverman WK. Cross-ethnic measurement equivalence of the RCMAS in Latino and White youth with anxiety disorders. J Pers Assess. 2008;91(1):58–61. doi:10.10/00223890802484183.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rey, Y., Marin, C.E., Silverman, W.K. (2013). Assessment of Anxiety Disorders: Categorical and Dimensional Perspectives. In: Vasa, R., Roy, A. (eds) Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6598-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-6599-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)