1 Introduction

Bisphenol A (2,2-bis (4-hydroxyphenyl) propane) is widely used for production of polycarbonates, epoxy resins and other plastics [1]. Its global production exceeds 3.8 million tons per annum [2]. It has enormous resistance to biodegradation and chemical degradation, it is easily found in surface water and industrial waste in high concentrations [3]. Bisphenol A is one of the chemicals suspected to act like hormones in the living system. It has a weak oestrogen-like effect, endocrine, and mutagenic effect and have been indicated as one of risk factor for breast cancer [1, 4]. It can caused obesity, diabetes and cardiac ailment in the human body [2]. BPA also affects plant growth by modifying the level of single endogenous hormones and growth-stress hormone ratios in the roots because of BPA absorption by the roots [5]. Bisphenol A is used in the production of polycarbonate plastics to improve their clearness, production of epoxy resin metal cans, baby bottles, water tanks, food and beverage containers, production of healthcare equipment and kitchenware, Exposure to dietary BPA occurs due to heating of cans during sterilization of food which causes BPA to drip into the can content from the epoxy layer of the wall [6]. An enormous amount of wastewater holding BPA is generated in plastic producing industries and discharged into the environment mainly water bodies, thereby accumulating BPA in the surface water [7].

Several techniques have been innovated and developed for removing Bisphenol A from the environment including bioremediation and conventional physical and chemical approaches [8]. The biological removal of Bisphenol mainly focuses on the use of microbial products rather than the microorganisms themselves. For instance, the use of microbial secreted catalysts such as laccase, lignin peroxidase and manganese-dependent peroxidase secreted by White-rot basidiomycetes offers some advantages including not being toxic, catalytic competence, specificity for substrate and reduced reaction period [9].

The non-biological methods for remediating BPA include thermal degradation, membrane separation, Adsorption strategy and oxidative degradation [10]. Remediation techniques such as adsorption [11] and photocatalytic methods [11] are faced with at least any of the following constraints: slow removal, secondary toxic accumulation and high cost. The adoption of hydroxyl radicals (HO⋅), produced from Fenton or related procedures, are very effective organic compounds [3, 12]. The Fenton method needs an acidic pH environment and is accompanied with mass production of sludge, thereby reducing it practical application [13]. The mixed Fenton process could subdued these weaknesses but has fairly low efficacy considering the reaction time and low H2O2utilization rate [13].

The persistence of Bisphenol A and its remediation challenges necessitates global evaluation of the research into the remediation strategies to enhance formation of novel and globally acceptable strategies that can result in effective remediation. Although several researchers [8, 9, 13] have conducted experiments on various means of remediating the BPA contaminated environment and reported their findings as well as reviews Bisphenol A contamination and its removal, a mixed-method science global map** analysis of research trends on BPA remediation is still lacking. The present study aimed to map the global research treads on Bisphenol A remediation between 1992 and 2021.

The analyses were based on yearly and country research productivity, most productive researchers and their averaged citations, sole and co-authorship, thematic and keywords evolutions, keywords analysis, authors and country collaborations/networking. Environmental and health impact of Bisphenol A and techniques for Bisphenol A remediation were further discussed under appropriate headings. The present analysis recognises research success, focus and gaps on Bisphenol A removal approaches and techniques and offer the researchers in this field the resources needed to identify present and future research priorities. This study will be helpful to policymakers and government in the allocation of funds for Bisphenol A remediation. The study found a global growth in BPA remediation research with more research output from advanced countries and few from develo** countries.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Data synthesis

Primary studies published from 1992 to 2021on Bisphenol remediation elucidations were sought in Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. PubMed is best database for biomedical sciences, Scopus host largest literature and web of science has the best quality. In this study we harnessed the strengths of the three databases. Data were retrieved from the databases with title specific algorithm enlisting ‘Bisphenol* AND (removal OR remediat* OR bioremediat* OR biodegrad*)’. Records were filtered to publication/document type, ‘article’ in WOS and Scopus and by ‘NOT review’ in PubMed. In all databases, documents in year 2022 were excluded for reproducibility. A total of 1376 (WOS = 557, Scopus = 561, PubMed = 258) documents retrieved from the database were pooled together in Rstudio for duplicate removal and data normalization using the bibliometrix package [14]. An initial pre-processing resulted in 709 duplicated documents removed leaving 667 articles. There was further processing to remove other non-primary articles unavoidably introduced by the lack of a primary article-specific filter in PubMed. In all, there were 640 articles as the final dataset for the analysis. The 640 datasets were analysed for trend, explanatory attributes, and productivity metrics in R Version 4.2.1. The hybrid quantitative and qualitative analyses (mixed methods) included explanatory analyses such as annual production, average citations/article and (co)-author metrics (i.e., collaboration index, authors’ appearances, authors count, (co-)authors/article, articles/author, and single-/multi-authored articles), productivity metrics of the top twenty-three authors/entities (nations, institutions, and sources) and the linked h-index and/or citation rate was further assessed. Finally, the thematic areas in BPA’s remediation research were determined qualitatively using unsupervised k-means clustering of the author-keywords via co-word analysis, metric multidimensional scaling or multiple correspondence analysis [14]. Thematic evolution of BPA remediation was evaluated based using simple centre co-word algorithm [36]. China, Japan and the USA have been reported to play dominating roles in research that focus on global challenges [28, 37]. Factors such as stable and itch free government transitions intercontinental collaboration, and progressive economy which are common in these countries also determines a country's prominence in research [38].

3.6 Top relevant academic institutions

The topmost academic institutions associated with BPA remediation and the quantity of documents they produced are as shown in Fig. 2. Harbin Institute of Technology, China tops the list with 23 publications followed by Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research and Rwth Aachen University with 21, 19, 18 and 18 articles respectively. Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry and University of Cincinnati each has 17 articles, Tsinghua University and University of Quebec has 16 articles each, while other topmost affiliations published between 14 and 10 articles.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Topmost academic institutions linked to Bisphenol A remediation from 1992 to 2021

Full size image

Academic institutions from Asia particularly China dominate the top relevant academic institutions affiliated with Bisphenol remediation-related research. The dominance of Chinese institutions in Bisphenol removal research may also be driven by environmental pollution fears in China, strict regulations, health factors and China’s desire to participate in global efforts of eliminating recalcitrant pollutants [26]. These corroborate the earlier finding in Table 4, which shows China to be the topmost country that has reported research findings on BPA remediation. In addition, China has major BPA manufacturing industries such as Lanxing Epoxy Plant, Chang Chun Petrochemical, Shuangfu Fine Chemical and many more as reviewed in the work of Huang, Wong [39], thus making China the largest growing BPA market in the world.

3.7 Keywords co-occurrence, conceptual framework and thematic evolutions

The keyword co-occurrence in BPA remediation studies is as depicted in Fig. 3. Each circle-coloured node depicts a specific keyword. The magnitude of the nodes (keywords) depicts the frequency of their occurrence in BPA remediation research, the edges indicate co-occurrence linkages of the words with one another, the colours of the nodes signify co-occurrence clusters. The stiffness of the lines between any two words shows the level of co-occurrence. Forty-eight (48) relevant keywords were encountered during this bibliometric map** on BPA remediation. The most prominent keywords were Bisphenol A followed by adsorption as indicated by the two bold nodes (Fig. 3). Other relevant words include biodegradation, peroxymonosulphate, immobilization, endocrine disruptors, wastewater treatment, water treatment, membrane bioreactor, endocrine disrupting compounds, peroxidase, removal, activated carbon, photocatalysis, sorption water purification, etc.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Keywords co-occurrence on Bisphenol A removal research from 1992 to 2021

Full size image

Most journals make it an inevitable requirement for authors to provide not less than 5 keywords that captures the major contents of their work when submitting their manuscript for consideration.[40]. The keywords are provided beneath the abstract of the manuscripts. This helps to streamline the quest for documents online and help the journal managers to identify relevant manuscript assessors or referees. This also help to show the research progression in a particular field of study, especially on the Web of Science or Scopus [28, 41].

In the present study, the frequency of reappearance of the keywords was employed for comprehending the trend of publication on BPA remediation. The utmost pertinent keywords associated with BPA remediation articles mirror the research climax from 1992 to 2021 as reviewed. These keywords indicate that the greatest and persisting challenge of BPA contamination is associated with water as signified by the occurrence of the words such as wastewater treatment, water treatment, water purification, activated sludge, biochar and membrane bioreactor. This is because water acts as the major route of contact for humans with most pollutants [28, 43, 44]. The collaborations among researchers living in advanced nations like the United States, Japan and China has generally stayed high, collaborations with and among develo** and less developed countries appears very low. Research collaborations are capable of nurturing high-level expertise, division of labour and utilization of enough resources and skills to overcome global and pressing challenges that require research attention [28, 45].

Fig. 7
figure 7

International collaboration networks on Bisphenol remediation. The nodes signify dissimilar countries while the length of the nodes represents the strength of a country in collaborating with other countries. The lines indicates collaborative path among the countries

Full size image

4 Environmental and health impact of Bisphenol A

4.1 The environmental impact

Globally, it was estimated that, in the annual production of 6 billion pounds of products, Bisphenol ranked as one of the utmost applied substance for producing polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resin [46]. BPAs are stable, bio-accumulative and highly durable compounds capable of degrading ecological setup and affecting human health [1]. Due to its high prevalence, it is common to encounter it in the environment. The major route of contact with BPA is leakage of the interior coating site of canned materials that provide protection [4]. These canned items include polycarbonate water bottles, preservative vessels and toddler bottles. BPA can also be found in different products such as toys, nail polish, lotions, soaps, shampoo, electric instruments, automobile paths and tires. The refluxing of plastics was also reported to produce a galore quantity of BPA in the environment [6].

The major determinant of BPA leaked from polycarbonate containers into liquids are temperature and soil types [47, 48]. The entire half-life of BPA in the soil is solely dependent on these two determinants. Mostly, BPA gets degraded in the soil with a range period of 1 to 10 days, but in freshwater settings, the accumulation vis-à-vis degradation is quite minimal. It was reported that BPA took 4.6 days to be degraded under aerobic conditions. Though BPA is not a fast-accumulating chemical, its availability in the environment signals a strong need for its reduction in an urban environment and encourages the use of recycling production [49].

4.2 Bisphenol A induced toxicity in reproduction systems

According to the report of Ma et al. [50] BPA causes sterility in both males and females by slowing down the control of sex hormones in the body. It was also reported that BPA toxicity causes a decline in the amount of cortisol in the serum vis-a-vis increasing the level of progesterone and luteinizing hormones in the body. The differences in the thickness of the endometrial wall in women were due to BPA toxicity [51]. Women in the age range of less than 37 years had a strong relationship in the level of BPA in urine and wall of endometrial thickness. Moreover, women of the age category greater than 37 years revealed a negative correlation.

4.3 Bisphenol A induced toxicity in growing systems

Previous studies have informed that early contact to Bisphenol A in offspring causes mental retardation in offspring. During puberty, boys and girls were found to contain high levels of BPA [52]. In adult pregnant women, exposure to BPA severely affected the developmental state of their unborn babies. On this note, male children were reported to display some unusual behavior or attitude in school which is a result of the high level of BPA [56]. Future research can be conducted to investigate the relationship between BPA-induced thyroid expression and ecological responses such as growth, behavior and development. As a result of the magnitude of the negative effect of BPA, countries have taken the step of providing strict regulatory policies. For example, France was reported to ban the use of BPA in polycarbonate bottles used for infant feeding. The USA through its food and drug administration has also issued a banned policy on BPA from baby goods. Canadian minister of health suggested that general guidelines need to be in place to minimized the situation [57].

5 Techniques for Bisphenol A remediation

Due to the clear understanding of how BPA has severely affected our environment and as well as the public health sector, researchers have delved into finding a lasting solution to reducing its impact. Some of these methods of remediating BPA include thermal degradation, membrane separation, Adsorption strategy and oxidative degradation.

5.1 Thermal degradation

A study reported by Tian et al. [58] discovered that BPA can be degraded via thermal degradation. In their study, they reflux a combination of bass and fish fillet in the bath at a temperature of 100 °C for 60 min. Results obtained using ultrasound-aided extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadruple time of flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-QTOF-M) revealed about 33 and 35% removal of BPA in incurred and spiked fish respectively. Furthermore, degradation was not observed in the water model signifying that the breakdown of Bisphenol A is majorly depends on matrix.

5.2 Membrane separation

Membrane separation is another tool used for BPA removal from the environment [59]. Several researchers reported that this method is efficient due to its low cost, easy operation and produce clear effluent [60]. Examples of such methods are reverse osmosis and nanofiltration and both have low permeability and retain a large amount of BPA. Moreover, some emerging novel membranes have been developed [

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its additional information files].

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai and Cape Peninsula University of Technology for using their facilities to carry out this study.

Funding

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, P M B 11, Lapai, Niger, Nigeria

    Jibrin Ndejiko Mohammed

  2. Phytomedicine and Phytochemistry Group, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, 7536, South Africa

    Kunle Okaiyeto & Oluwafemi O. Oguntibeju

  3. Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria

    Saidu Haruna

  4. Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

    Wan Rosmiza Zana Wan Dagang

  5. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria

    Temitope Cyrus Ekundayo

Authors
  1. Jibrin Ndejiko Mohammed
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  2. Kunle Okaiyeto
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  3. Saidu Haruna
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  4. Wan Rosmiza Zana Wan Dagang
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  5. Oluwafemi O. Oguntibeju
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  6. Temitope Cyrus Ekundayo
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Contributions

KO and JNM conceptualized the idea of this study. SH and JNM performed the literature search, TCE and OOO conducted the analysis and wrote the methodology. WRZWD wrote the introduction and the conclusion. Results and discussion section was written by JNM, SH and KO. All authors participated in proofreading, organization and reviewing of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Jibrin Ndejiko Mohammed.

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Mohammed, J.N., Okaiyeto, K., Haruna, S. et al. Systematic assessment on the remediation of Bisphenol A in the global environments: a mixed method analysis of research outputs. Discov Environ 2, 15 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00045-1

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00045-1

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