Abstract
In the near future, the capabilities of commonly used artificial systems will reach a level where we will be able to permit them to make moral decisions autonomously as part of their proper daily functioning—autonomous cars, personal assistants, household robots, stock trading bots, autonomous weapons, etc. are examples of the types of systems that will deal with simple to complex moral situations that require some level of moral judgment. In the research field of machine ethics, we distinguish several types of artificial moral agents, each of which has a different level of moral agency. In this paper, we focus on the moral agency of Explicit and Full-blown artificial moral agents. We form an opinion regarding their level of moral agency, and then examine the question of whether it is morally right to align the values of (artificial) moral agents. If we assume or are able to determine that certain types of artificial agents are indeed moral agents, then we ought to examine whether it is morally right to construct them in such a way that they are “committed” to human values. We discuss an analogy to human moral agents and the implications of granting or denying moral agency from artificial agents.
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
04 December 2023
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-023-00403-4
Notes
See [2,3,4,5]. See [
It is important to note that deployed AMAs will constantly evolve their moral understanding by receiving feedback from the environment (as current machine learning- based systems also do). They will probably make errors of moral judgment, as humans do, but probably not as often, and will have to learn from them and face the consequences (see the previous footnote).
See [40].
See the entry “Astroethics”, Scholarly Community Encyclopedia.
https://encyclopedia.pub/item/revision/ff0a4b96955079658b08c3442f8f98d1, Accessed 02–11-2022.
References
Bostrom, N.: Superintelligence: paths, dangers, strategies. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2014)
Russell, S.: Human Compatible AI and the Problem of Control. Penguin Random House LLC. (2019)
Russell, S.: Provably beneficial artificial intelligence. Stuart Russell’s papers on Berkeley’s edu site. https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~russell/papers/russell-bbvabook17-pbai.pdf (2017). Accessed 05 Jan 2023
Christiano, P.: Clarifying ‘AI alignment’. ai-alignment’s site. https://ai-alignment.com/clarifying-ai-alignment-cec47cd69dd6 (2018). Accessed 05 Jan 2023
Yudkowsky, E.: AI Alignment: Why It’s Hard, and Where to Start. Machine Intelligence Research Institute website. https://intelligence.org/2016/12/28/ai-alignment-why-its-hard-and-where-to-start/ (2016). Accessed 05 Jan 2023
Yampolskiy, R. V.: On Controllability of AI. Ar**v abs/2008.04071 (2020)
Gabriel, I.: Artificial intelligence, values, and alignment. Mind. Mach. 30, 411–437 (2020)
Bostrom, N.: Ethical issues in advanced artificial intelligence. Nick Bostrom’s site. https://nickbostrom.com/ethics/ai. (2003). Accessed 05 Jan 2023
Allen, C., Varner, G., Zinser, J.: Prolegomena to any future artificial moral agent. J. Exp. Theor. Artif. Intell. 12, 251–261 (2000)
Allen, C., Wallach, W.: Moral machines: contradiction in terms, or abdication of human responsibility? In: Lin, P., Abney, K., Bekey, G. (eds.) Robot ethics: the ethical and social implications of robotics, pp. 55–68. MIT Press, Cambridge (2011)
Moor, J.H.: The nature, importance, and difficulty of machine ethics. Intelligent Systems, IEEE 21(4), 18–21 (2006)
Moor, J. H.: Four kinds of ethical robots. Philosophy Now (2009)
Allen, C., Smit, I., Wallach, W.: Artificial morality: top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid approaches. Ethics Inf. Technol. 7, 149–155 (2005)
Block, N.: Troubles with functionalism. In: Block, N. (ed.) Readings in the philosophy of psychology, vol. 1, pp. 268–305. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1980)
Block, N.: Are absent qualia impossible? Philos. Rev. 89, 257–274 (1980)
Shoemaker, S.: Functionalism and qualia. Philos. Stud. 27, 291–315 (1975)
Jackson, F.: Epiphenomenal qualia. Philos. Quart. 32, 127–136 (1982)
Chalmers, D.: The conscious mind. In: Search of a fundamental theory. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford (1996)
Lewis, D.: Mad pain and Martian pain. In: Block, N. (ed.) Readings in the philosophy of psychology, vol. I, pp. 216–222. Harvard University Press (1980)
Behdadi, D., Munthe, C.: A normative approach to artificial moral agency. Mind. Mach. 30, 195–218 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-020-09525-8
Everitt, T., Lea, G., Hutter, M.: AGI Safety Literature Review. In: International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) (2018). ar**v: 1805.01109
Marcus, G., Davis, E.: Rebooting AI: building artificial intelligence we can trust. Vintage Books (2020)
Marcus, G., Davis, E.: GPT-3, Bloviator: OpenAI’s language generator has no idea what it’s talking about. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/08/22/1007539/gpt3-openai-language-generator-artificial-intelligence-ai-opinion/ (2020). Accessed 11 May 2022
Marcus, G.: The next decade in AI: four steps towards robust artificial intelligence. (2020). https://arxiv.org/abs/2002.06177
Marcus, G.: Deep learning is hitting a wall. https://nautil.us/deep-learning-is-hitting-a-wall-14467/ (2022). Accessed on 13 May 2022
Scholkopf, B., et al.: Toward causal representation learning. Proc. IEEE 109, 612–663 (2021)
Bengio, Y., et al.: A meta-transfer objective for learning to disentangle causal mechanisms (2020). Ar**v abs/1901.10912
Ramplin, S., Ayob, G.: Moral responsibility in psychopathy: a clinicophilosophical case discussion. BJPsych Advances 23(3), 187–195 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.115.015321
Christian, B.: The alignment problem: machine learning and human values. WW Norton & Company (2020)
Ng, A. Y. and Russell, S. J.: Algorithms for Inverse Reinforcement Learning. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML '00). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA, 663–670 (2000)
Koch, J. and Langosco, L.: Discussion: Objective Robustness and Inner Alignment Terminology.AI Alignment Forum. https://www.alignmentforum.org/posts/pDaxobbB9FG5Dvqyv/discussion-objective-robustness-and-inner-alignment (2021). Accessed 13 Nov 2022
Hubinger, E.: Inner Alignment, Outer Alignment, and Proposals for Building Safe Advanced AI.Podcast episode, Futureoflife. https://futureoflife.org/podcast/evan-hubinger-on-inner-alignment-outer-alignment-and-proposals-for-building-safe-advanced-ai/ (2020). Accessed 13 Nov 2022
Asilomar, A.I.: Principles (2017). In Principles developed in conjunction with the 2017 Asilomar conference [Benevolent AI 2017]
Routley, R.: Against the inevitability of human chauvinism. In: Goodpater, K.E., Sayre, K.M. (eds.) Ethics and problems of the 21st century, pp. 36–59. University of Notre Dame Press (1979)
Bostrom, N., Yudkowsky, E.: The ethics of artificial intelligence. In: Frankish, K., Ramsey, W. (eds.) The Cambridge handbook of artificial intelligence, pp. 316–334. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2014)
Good, I.J.: Speculations concerning the first ultraintelligent machine. In: Alt, F.L., Rubinof, M. (eds.) Advances in computers 6. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA (1965)
Vinge, V. Technological Singularity. https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book98/com.ch1/vinge.singularity.html (1993). Accessed 26 Oct 2022
Chalmers, D.: The singularity: a philosophical analysis. J. Conscious. Stud. 17(9–10), 7–65 (2010)
Firt, E.: Motivational defeaters of self-modifying AGIs. J. Conscious. Stud. 24(5–6), 150–169 (2017)
Carson, T.: The Golden Rule. International Encyclopedia of Ethics (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee188.pub2
Kant, I.: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. tr. H. J. Paton (New York: Harper, 1948)
Wallach, W., Allen, C.: Moral machines: teaching robots right from wrong. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2008)
Johnson, D.: Computer systems: moral entities but not moral agents. Ethics Inf. Technol. 8(4), 195–204 (2006)
Floridi, L., Sanders, J.W.: On the morality of artificial agents. Mind. Mach. 14(3), 349–379 (2004)
Walsh, E.: Moral emotions. In: Shackelford, T.K., Weekes-Shackelford, V.A. (eds.) Encyclopedia of evolutionary psychological science. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_650
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
The Author name was tagged incorrectly. The given name is “Erez” and the family name is “Firt”.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Firt, E. Ought we align the values of artificial moral agents?. AI Ethics 4, 273–282 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-023-00264-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-023-00264-x