Introduction

Educational administration and research have increasingly focused on teachers’ job satisfaction in recent years. One of the critical factors driving this trend is the recognition that teachers’ job satisfaction plays a vital role in determining the effectiveness and development of schools (Lopes & Oliveira, 2020). Teacher Job Satisfaction (JS) is essential to ensure successful education as it affects the quality of teaching, the effectiveness of school management, and the overall school environment (Dreer, 2021; Pepe et al., 2017).

Subsequently, teachers’ job satisfaction is prominently on the agenda of policymakers worldwide (Chen et al., 2023; OECD, 2019; Pepe et al., 2017). In recent years, educational researchers have discovered that social utilization motivation (SOCUT) is a variable that can influence teachers’ job satisfaction (JS) (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014). In a study, Pepe et al. (2017) found that the variable that best predicts teachers’ job satisfaction is their relationships and bonds with students. However, research examining the impact of Social benefit motivation (SOCUT) on teachers’ job satisfaction (JS) has yet to reach a comprehensive level (Turner et al., 2011). Moreover, a recent study by Chang and Sung (2024) examined the impact of SOCUT on teachers’ JS using a sample from Taiwan. Consequently, further research is needed to elucidate the complex dynamics between SOCUT and teachers’ JS.

Previous research indicates that SOCUT is linked to both student and teacher output, with a particular emphasis on its association with student output (Kılınç et al., 2012; Lopes &Oliveira, 2020; Richardson &Watt, 2014; Turner et al., 2011). Educational administration researchers have examined that teachers with high SOCUT levels have positive attitudes towards their profession. (Kılınç et al., 2012). Despite growing attention to SOCUT and its effects on various teacher attitudes, it is surprising that less empirical research has been done on its relevance to JS (Kılınç et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2023). Reports suggest that the relationships between SOCUT and teacher attitudes are influenced by a number of individual and organizational variables acting as mediators (McLean et al., 2019), such as teaching adaptations of teachers (Klassen et al., 2009) and team innovation (TEAMIN) (Blömeke et al., 2021) mediate teacher attitudes.

However, studies focusing on the role of mediating variables in this relationship are limited, even though there is accumulated knowledge on the direct and indirect mechanisms linking SOCUT and teachers’ job satisfaction (Liu et al., 2023). However, there is also a gap in the literature on whether instructional practice (IP) and TEAMIN mediate the relationship between SOCUT and teachers’ JS. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the relationship between teachers’ SOCUT and teachers’ JS, focusing on the mediating role of teachers’ IP and TEAMIN in the Turkish school context. In this sense, the research questions guiding this study are as follows:

  1. 1.

    What is the extent of the relationship between SOCUT and JS?

  2. 2.

    Do TEAMIN and IP mediate the relationship between SOCUT and JS?

The unique contribution of this research is to explore the extent to which the mediating factors of teachers’ IP and TEAMIN influence the relationship between teachers’ SOCUT and JS. In addition to contributing to the body of knowledge on teacher JS, the findings of this study are expected to provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners.

Literature Review and Conceptual Framework

Social Utility Motivation

OECD (2018) categorizes teachers’ motivation to teach into personal benefit motivation, social utility motivation, and perceptions of value and policy impact. In this study, we focused on social utility motivation (SOCUT). This construct refers to an individual’s motivation to make a positive social impact and contribute to sha** the younger generation’s future. Thomson and Palermo (2018) assert that SOCUT comprises social benefit values that underpin the decision to teach, such as the aspiration to contribute to society and improve the lives of children. One factor that drives individuals to pursue a career in teaching is their perception of its usefulness for themselves or others. Manuel and Hughes’ (2006) study identified the desire to positively impact children’s lives as one of the reasons why prospective teachers choose the teaching profession. These findings underscore the importance of intrinsic motivation in the teaching profession. Individuals driven by purpose and passion may be well-suited for this work. McKenzie and Santiago (2005) reported that individuals commonly choose the teaching profession as the desire to contribute to society. Torsney et al. (2019) highlight that SOCUT encompasses various aspects that teachers may appreciate concerning the teaching profession, including its impact on the immediate environment and society.

SOCUT has organizational behavior implications for teachers. For instance, according to Torsney et al. (2019), SOCUT is a reliable and positive predictor of professional commitment and job satisfaction. Conversely, McLean et al. (2019) discovered that low personal and social benefit values are linked to teacher burnout, which can harm teacher JS. Additionally, Liu et al. (2023) found that SOCUT significantly predicts teacher job satisfaction. In addition, SOCUT is significantly related to teachers’ self-efficacy in each position (An et al., 2021). In their study on preservice teachers in Singapore, Lam et al. (1995) provide evidence that the higher the preservice teachers’ SOCUT, the lower their intention to leave. Therefore, the relationship of SOCUT with teachers’ organizational outcomes is essential, and its relationship with organizational behaviors needs to be investigated further. However, few studies explain the relationship between career motivation and job satisfaction. Precisely for this reason, this study tries to examine the relationship between SOCUT and teachers’ JS, TEAMIN, and IP.

Instructional Practice

Recent years have seen an increase in research that Instructional Practice (IP) is among the key determinants of student learning outcomes (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Rincón-Gallardo & Fleisch, 2016; Schleicher, 2016; Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). In a Brophy (1986) study, specific teacher behaviors were consistently linked to student achievement. Effective teaching encompasses-specific behaviors such as defining well-defined academic objectives to establish learning outcomes, utilizing efficient classroom management techniques, and customizing teaching approaches to cater to the unique needs of both students and subject matter. Specific behaviors such as defining well-defined academic objectives to establish learning outcomes, utilizing efficient classroom management techniques, and customizing teaching approaches to cater to the unique needs of both students and subject matter. TALIS’s multidimensional framework defines effective teaching practices based on years of research. According to a study by Ainley and Carstens (2018) and the OECD (2018), effective teaching is characterized by four dimensions: clarity of instruction, cognitive activation, classroom management, and enhanced activities.

Rincón-Gallardo and Fleisch (2016) have discovered evidence that various IP strategies that achieve successful improvements, transformations, and student rediscovery across multiple schools positively support student learning. Van de Grift (2007) highlights the importance of clear teaching objectives, well-structured lessons, mobilizing students, and, if necessary, direct teaching about practical IP. Effective teaching practices include specific actions such as structuring information, providing redundant information, delivering clear presentations, demonstrating enthusiasm, and maintaining an appropriate pace and cool-down during information processing. Teachers must also offer instructional tips and appropriate feedback, as Weinert et al. (1989) noted. Ainley and Carstens (2018) assert that Instructional Practice (IP) comprises several elements that foster student motivation and achievement. First, teachers’ IP refers to what happens in the classroom. In the classroom, IP focuses teachers’ attention on students’ learning goals, provides students with a variety of learning models, and at the same time incorporates contemporary practices that motivate them to think (Rosenshine, 1995).

Collective Teacher Innovation

The success of the organizations in a competitive environment and in the changing world conditions depends on their correct perception and implementation of innovation (Mumford & Licuanan, 2004). Innovation refers to introducing and implementing a new product, idea, method, or anything new (Utterback, 1971). The process consists of three steps: coming up with an idea, getting the idea ready for implementation, and creating changes by implementing the innovation (Serdyukov, 2017). Educational organizations, like all organizations, are affected by environmental changes and innovations.

Unlike other organizations, educational organizations are also responsible for initiating change and innovation, that’s why education is essential to support students’ creative and innovative thinking (Andiliou & Murphy, 2010). Another important aspect of education is the importance given to innovative teaching practices (OECD, 2009). Educational research emphasizes the importance of innovation in organizational competition and taking advantage, the continuation and survival of the organization (Thurlings et al., 2015).

Not only individual, but also collective innovation is necessary for implementing the innovation (Buske, 2018). With a growing focus on creating collaborative communities of practice and professional learning in education organizations to enhance outcomes, innovation is recognized as a social process that benefits from social interaction and feedback for continual improvement (Andiliou & Murphy, 2010; Greany, 2018).

In the light of the constantly evolving nature of the education system, the growing need for innovation, and the demanded growth of individual schools, the collaborative endeavors of the teaching staff within each school gain great importance (Buske, 2018). In this study, collective teacher innovation, as defined by OECD (2019), is used as a specific concept that encompasses the collaborative efforts of teachers to generate new teaching and learning ideas, embrace change, pursue innovative problem-solving approaches, and support each other in implementing original concepts.

Job Satisfaction

JS is defined as an individual’s emotional response to work experiences. Job satisfaction is related to whether the job reminds pleasant and positive feelings in employees (Mercer, 1997). Weiqi (2007) suggests that teacher job satisfaction can increase enthusiasm and improve students’ interpersonal communication. There are a number of studies examining the factors that affect job satisfaction, which can be divided as internal and external factors (Bektaş, 2017). Internal factors include recognition, achievement, work, advancement, and responsibility while external factors consists of monthly salary, company policies, technical competence, interpersonal relations, and working conditions (Wernimont, 1966). TALIS 2018 defines teacher job satisfaction as the feeling of accomplishment and contentment experienced by teachers in their profession. It is divided into two dimensions: job satisfaction from the working environment and job satisfaction from the profession (OECD, 2019). Earlier studies revealed that various factors affect teachers’ job satisfaction, including factors at the level of school, teacher, and student. In JS research conducted on teachers, external factors include working conditions such as collaboration between colleagues (Shah, 2012). Among internal factors, work motivation (Arifin, 2015; Hutabarat, 2015), self-efficacy beliefs (Caprara et al., 2006; Zheng et al., 2019), teaching competencies (Arifin, 2015) and meeting basic workplace needs are included (Dreer, 2021). Consequently, it is possible to say that teacher job satisfaction has a multidimensional structure and it changes according to school conditions (Liu et al., 2021). Teachers’ job satisfaction should be taken seriously by every participant in the education system. Since the most important human resource of the education system is the teacher, the most important task in improving and develo** education in terms of quality and quantity belongs to the teacher. To increase the quality and quantity of education, it is vital to solve teachers’ problems and create suitable conditions for teachers’ job satisfaction. Ensuring teachers continue to work efficiently requires conditions that lead to teachers’ satisfying performance (Sadeghi et al., 2013). Teachers’ perception of the status of the teaching profession and society’s perceived support of the profession are necessary for job satisfaction (Poppleton & Riseborough, 1988).

Develo** Models

Previous studies have indicated that SOCUT is linked to various teacher outcomes, as revealed in the research conducted (An et al., 2021; McLean et al., 2019; Torsney et al, 2019). Among these outcomes, teachers’ JS has been identified as particularly significant, as highlighted in the work of Turner et al. (2011). In addition, it has been discovered that teachers with high SOCUT have positive attitudes towards school and profession (Kılınç et al., 2012). In this context, a relationship between SOCUT and JS has been found out in variety of studies (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014) which indicate that teachers with high SOCUT level have also high JS (Liu et al., 2023). We performed this study to provide unique insights that IP and TEAMIN are important in the relationship between SOCUT and JS in teachers’ job satisfaction. In the available literature JS, which refers to an individual’s overall contentment and fulfillment with their job, is a significant determinant that impacts employees’ willingness and ability to engage in innovative activities (Sena, 2020). Studies show that job satisfaction and innovative behaviors are positively related (Yu et al., 2007). In addition to being crucial for an organization’s smooth working, innovations expand members’ advantages. These include aligning job demands effectively, providing essential resources, improving communication, and fostering job satisfaction (Messmann & Mulder, 2011). Moreover, there is empirical evidence that instructional practices were positively related to job satisfaction (Von der Embse et al., 2016). Based on the available literature, we developed the model in Fig. 1 to examine whether TEAMIN and IP mediate the relationship between SOCUT and teacher JS.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual model

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Rationale and Contextual Background

There are two main objectives of this research one of which is to explore direct and indirect relationships between SOCUT and JS through hidden variables called TEAMIN and IP as mediators. Watt and Richardson (2008) identify seven dimensions that contribute to individuals’ motives for pursuing a career in teaching. According to Lin et al. (2012) among these dimensions, SOCUT is a predominant factor that influences career choice. In addition to this, as noted by Liu et al. (2021) a positive correlation has been observed between teacher motivation and JS In this context, this research, which focuses on teachers’ JS, will offer a new and fresh perspective to the literature on social benefit motivations related to the careers of teachers that are job satisfaction-oriented. Secondly, this study concerns about the mediator role of TEAMIN and IP in the relationship between teachers’ SOCUT and JS in educational processes where a highly centralized organizational structure is dominant.

In recent years, Ministry of National Education in Türkiye (MoNE) has maintained the central management system in its usual way, but at the same time it has initialized a good deal of studies on innovative thinking in schools (İlhan, 2020). Principals and teachers are encouraged to think innovatively and take more responsibility in their teaching processes, that’s why conditions for team innovativeness have begun to emerge in schools. In addition, Turkish culture is characterized by high tendency of uncertainty avoidance and collectivism (Hofstede et al., 2005). In Türkiye, collective thinking is acquired by children at an early age, and the fundamental idea is that collective ideas about individuals and the interests of society are prioritized. Therefore, contributing to society enable teachers to realize their social value.

Consequently, teachers often experience a sense of fulfillment by influencing the society positively through their teaching. In this respect, teachers are expected to develop innovative skills in their students by collaborative works. On the other hand, there is a need to explore SOCUT related to TEAMIN, IP, and JS in Turkish schools. The results of this study may have significant consequences for the countries with similar cultural characteristics with Türkiye. Liu et al. (2021) reveals that most of the studies on SOCUT and JS were conducted in the Western societies, and the number of studies are still insufficient in Asian countries although it tends to show an increase.

We propose the following hypotheses based on the theoretical foundation and literature review mentioned above.

H1

SOCUT has an impact on teachers’ JS.

H2

There is a positive relationship between IP and JS.

H3

There is a positive relationship between TEAMIN and JS.

H4

IP and TEAMIN have a mediating role in the relationship between SOCUT and JS.

Methods

Data Source and Sample

In this study, a dataset of TALIS 2018 is used, which was collected by the OECD September 2017 and July 2018 (OECD, 2019). The TALIS is one of the large-scale studies that enable cross-cultural data on teaching and teachers’ work that can inform about developments in policy and practice. This study utilised data of TALIS 2018, which involved primary, middle and high schools from 48 participating countries with a focus on teachers. TALIS required all participating countries to conduct a “core” survey at the lower secondary level of education (OECD, 2019). In this study, we used these “core” data. Based on our research questions, we used data teacher questionnaires at ISCED-2 level gathered in Türkiye. Data collected in Türkiye included 3952 teachers. After accounting for missing values, the structural equation modeling analysis 2539 teachers from Türkiye. The sample group comprises 52.2% women (1325) and 47.8% men (1214). A small majority of teachers (5%) have education levels below ISCED level 3, while the majority (79%) hold education at ISCED level 3. The remaining 20% have education at ISCED level 4. The years of experience of the teachers, categorized by their age ranges, are depicted in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Years continuing being a teacher by teacher age groups

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As anticipated, the teaching experience of teachers aged below 25 years is low. However, it is noteworthy that teachers aged 50–59 and those aged 60 and over possess the least amount of teaching experience in the sample. Within the sample, the proportion of teachers between the ages of 30–39 is higher than that of other age groups, comprising 39.3%. This is followed by the proportion of teachers aged 40–49, which stands at 33.5%. The age group with the lowest proportion consists of teachers aged 25 and under (0.9%).

Variables

Dependent variable

The research evaluates job satisfaction with the profession (JSPRO) as the dependent variable, with a reliability coefficient of (ω = 0.863). TALIS 2018 defines teachers’ willingness to adopt innovative practices and their perceptions of incentives for innovation adoption. (OECD, 2019). In the TALIS 2018 cycle, innovation was acknowledged as a “cross-cutting” factor for the learning environment in schools, and it was included in the theme for the first time (OECD, 2019). The latent variable T3JSPRO comprises of four items (refer to Supplementary Appendix A). It is evaluated using a four-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (4) to assess the teachers’ feedback. The factors that drive individuals to become teachers are closely linked to how satisfied they feel in their job later on. However, it’s worth noting that the overall satisfaction can be influenced by the atmosphere and environment of the school they work in (Ainley & Carstens, 2018).Whether teachers are classified as “highly engaged persisters”, “highly engaged switchers”, or “lower engaged desisters” can indicate how long they are likely to stay in the teaching profession, their perceptions of the profession, and which types of motivators—either intrinsic or extrinsic—will be most effective in fostering their growth and development (Watt & Richardson, 2008). In the light of these informations, in TALIS 2018, indicators of job satisfaction and teacher perceptions of the value of the teaching profession were redesigned and measured with T3JSPRO. T3JSPRO demonstrated a perfect fit for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.001, SRMR = 0.002) (OECD, 2019).

Independent Variable

In this study, the variable under investigation is the social utility motivation for teaching (T3SOCUT) is an independent variable. T3SOCUT is a latent variable consisting of three items (refer to Supplementary Appendix A) with a reliability coefficient of (ω = 0.812). The items were measured using a four-point Likert-type scale, where the response categories ranged from “Not important at all” (1) to “Of high importance” (4). Liu et al. (2023) demonstrated that social utility motivation affects job satisfaction among middle school teachers in China using data from TALIS 2018. Similarly, Chang and Sung (2024) recently illustrated in their study that social utility motivation influences teachers’ job satisfaction in a sample from Taiwan. T3SOCUT demonstrated a perfect fit for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.000, SRMR = 0.000) (OECD, 2019).

Mediating Variables

The mediating variables of this study were T3TEAM (ω = 0.956) and T3TPRA (α = 0.899). T3TEAM is a latent variable consisting of four items measured on a four-point Likert scale, with response categories ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (4), and it represents team innovativeness. T3TEAM demonstrated a perfect fit (RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.986, SRMR = 0.006) for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (OECD, 2019). In TALIS 2018, psychological and a sociological perspective integrated on teacher innovativeness. T3TEAM scale has organisational component beside an individual (cognitive) component to reflect teacher group’s perception on innovation (Ainley & Carstens, 2018).

TALIS 2018 defined T3TPRA as a composite variable consisting of three subscales: T3CLAIN, T3COGAC, and T3CLASM, which measure the clarity of instruction, cognitive activation, and classroom management, respectively. Each subscale has four items measured on a four-point Likert scale, with response categories ranging from “never or almost never” (1) to “always” (4). The composite variable IP was created using the whole scale scores of 12 items (refer to Supplementary Appendix A), and it is also a latent variable according to TALIS 2018. TALIS 2018 focus on instructional practices in general rather than subject-specific instructional practices. Teachers’ background and perceptions of their instructional practices, teaching practices and general teaching practices (i.e., classroom management, cognitive activation, and clarity of instruction) were some of indicators of T3TPRA (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). Classroom management is seen as a positive disciplinary environment in the classroom in the TALIS 2018. Cognitive activation involves educational tasks that prompt students to assess, blend and utilize knowledge within the context of problem solving. Support from teachers is crucial aspect of teaching that impacts students’ academic success. This includes various practices such as offering additional assistance when necessary, valuing and addressing students’ ideas and inquiries, showing care and encouragement, and providing emotional support. In the TALIS 2018 assessment, teacher support is evaluated through the clarity of instruction scale (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). T3CLAIN (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.003, TLI = 1.001, SRMR = 0.002), T3COGAC (RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.001, SRMR = 0.002) and T3CLASM (RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.996, TLI = 0.975, SRMR = 0.006) demonstrated a perfect fit for the Türkiye sample at ISCED-2 level (OECD, 2019).

Control Variable

The years of teaching experience (TT3G11B, metric) is also added as a control variable in this study to avoid potential bias and control for potential effects on the outcome variable. Teaching experience has been found to impact job satisfaction, and as certain studies (Klassen & Chiu, 2010) suggest, teachers tend to become less satisfied with their jobs as they gain more experience. By including teaching experience as a control variable for the dependent variable (JSPRO), unbiased estimations of the dependent variables can be obtained.

Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Results

Before the mediator analysis was done through structural equation modeling (SEM), necessary assumptions were checked. For this purpose, firstly, univariate and multivariate outliers were examined. Then, cases outside the range of ± 3.0 were deleted from the data (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2008). Also, the Mahalanobis distances were calculated to determine the multivariate outliers and values other than the critical value (p < 0.001) were deleted. Lastly, the skewness and kurtosis values of the scales were examined for 2549 participants. The skewness and kurtosis values were found to be between − 1.5 and + 1.5; in this way, the data were assumed to be normally distributed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

To create a mediation model, all variables (independent, dependent, and mediator) must have a significant relationship with one another. However, these relationships should be also moderate as they may lead to multicollinearity. When the relationships between variables exceed 0.80, it indicates multicollinearity issues (Iacobucci et al., 2007). As shown in Table 1, the correlations between the variables are positive and statistically significant at varying levels of 0.01.

Table 1 Correlations and reliability coefficients of study variable
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Following the preliminary analyses, the base model (without mediator variables) and a model with one mediator variable were tested as the initial step of the conceptual SEM model. The model-fit was then evaluated using Mplus 8.5 generated indices, which included the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI), and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI). A value of RMSEA and SRMR less than 0.08 and CFI and TLI greater than 0.90 were considered acceptable fits (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Marsh et al., 2004). RMSEA should report with a 90% confidence interval (Kline, 2005). The lower limit of the confidence interval for RMSEA smaller than 0.05 is an indication of model fit. Besides, the upper confidence interval limit for RMSEA greater than 0.10 indicates poor model fit. We also reported the χ2 values were also reported; however, χ2 is affected by sample sizes and tends to be significant with large sample sizes (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Two models were tested, which are Model 1 (base model-no mediation) and Model 2 (with mediation), to reveal the kind of mediation (partial or complete). Full mediation is revealed when the independent variable predicts the dependent variable significantly, and with the mediator presented, this direct relation becomes insignificant, while the indirect effect is significant (Hayes, 2009; Shrout & Bolger, 2002). In partial mediation, the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is still statistically significant if the mediator is removed from a model. The structural model was analyzed, which examines the effect of social utility motivation on job satisfaction with the profession, presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Base model (Model 1) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. ***p < 0.001

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The base model demonstrated a good fit for the data (χ2 = 132.765 [df = 19], p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.929, TLI = 0.896, SRMR = 0.033) except chi-square, presented in Table 1. Social utility motivation for teaching is a statistically significant predictor of job satisfaction. Besides, paths and standardized coefficients among the base model were also examined, and path coefficients were interpreted according to Kline’s (2005) guideline, which uses reference values of ≥ 0.10 as small, ≥ 0.30 as medium, and ≥ 0.50 as highly significant effects. It was observed that SOCUT has a moderate and significant relationship with JSPRO (β = 0.363, SE = 0.030, p < 0.001).

Results

A mediation model was constructed to analyze the proposed direct and indirect effects of SOCUT on JSPRO. In this model, SOCUT was determined as the independent variable, TEAMIN and IP as mediating variables, and JSPRO as the dependent variable. First, the baseline model (Model 1) was tested in order to examine the effect of SOCUT on JSPRO without mediation. Next, meadiation models with single mediator were conducted to see the mediating role of TEAMIN (Model 2) and IP (Model 3), and to determine the impact of the mediator variable, 10,000 bootstraps were performed. Finally structural models were conducted to see the mediating role of both mediator variables, TEAMIN and IP. According to Preacher and Hayes’s (2008) upper and lower limit rule was used with the aim of evaluating the significance of the indirect effect. This rule suggests that if the indirect impact is significant, then the interval of the indirect effect should not include zero (0). Model fit indices for Model 1, Model 2, Model 3 and Model 4 are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Model fit indices for base model and mediator model
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Table 2 displays model-fit values of conceptual models without a mediator variable (Model 1), with single meaditor variable (Model 2 and Model 3) and with two mediator variables (Model 4). The four conceptual models showed a good fit for the data when the model fit values were examined in detail. Model 1 and Model 3 showed a better fit in terms of RMSEA and SRMR values whereas according to CFI and TLI values, Model 1 showed a better fit relatively. The direct and indirect paths and standardized coefficients among the models were also examined.

As demonstrated in Table 3, for Model 2, SOCUT has a moderate and significant relationship with JSPRO (β = 0.353, SE = 0.029, p < 0.000). As reported in the analysis, this indicates that teachers’ social motivation influences their job satisfaction. The results also reveal that SOCUT is a weak yet significant predictor of TEAMIN (β = 0.133, SE = 0.025, p < 0.000). TEAMIN is a weak but significant predictor of JSPRO (β = 0.128, SE = 0.026, p < 0.000), indicating that teachers with higher TEAMIN tend to experience more job satisfaction. Subsequently, the standardized indirect effects in the structural model (refer to Fig. 4) were analyzed, and SOCUT was found to affect positively JSPRO through TEAMIN (β = 0.017, SE = 0.004, p < 0.001). Although the mediation effect of TEAMIN is low, the results of the current study indicate that teachers who tend to have high social utility motivation also have a higher job satisfaction thanks to their interest in teamwork. Given that TALIS 2018 assesses educators’ perceptions of innovation within both individual and collaborative contexts, the impact of their innovation perception on job satisfaction, facilitated by motivation, can be explained by Model 2. Put differently, teachers who perceive themselves as innovative are likely to experience elevated levels of job satisfaction. Furthermore, higher motivation among teachers is associated with increased job satisfaction, particularly when coupled with a positive perception of innovation. TEAMIN, the mediating variable of the Model 2, explains approximately 2% of the total variation in job satisfaction with the profession.

Table 3 Results for the standardized direct, indirect, and total effects of social utility motivation to teach on job satisfaction through IP and TEAM
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Fig. 4
figure 4

Single mediation model (Model 2) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. ***p < 0.001

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Likewise Model 2, SOCUT is positively related with IP at a weak but significant (β = 0.154, SE = 0.025, p < 0.000) in Model 3. IP among teachers is a moderate predictor of JSPRO (β = 0.293, SE = 0.025, p < 0.001), suggesting that instructional practice influences their perceptions of job satisfaction. IP is a weak but significant mediator in the relationship between SOCUT and JSPRO (β = 0.044, SE = 0.008, p < 0.000). Analysis of indirect paths reveals that social utility motivation for teaching instructional practice positively affects teachers’ JS, which can increase their perceptions of job satisfaction. TALIS 2018 addresses classroom management, cognitive activation, and clarity of instruction in the context of instructional practices. Teachers with high level of motivation typically cultivate a positive disciplinary atmosphere in their classrooms, integrate and apply knowledge in the context of problem solving, demonstrate substantial support for their students, and experience higher levels of satisfaction in their professional roles, can be explained by Model 3. IP, the mediating variable of the Model 3, explains approximately 4% of the total variation in job satisfaction with the profession (refer to Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Single mediation model (Model 3) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. ***p < 0.001

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Lastly, for Model 4, both mediator variables have significant effect on JSPPRO. SOCUT has a moderate and significant relationship with JSPRO (β = 0.319, SE = 0.029, p < 0.000) likewise both Model 2 and Model 3. The results also reveal that SOCUT is a weak yet significant predictor of TEAMIN (β = 0.133, SE = 0.026, p < 0.000), showing that social utility motivations of teachers influence their team innovation attempts. Likewise, SOCUT is positively related with IP at a weak but significant (β = 0.154, SE = 0.025, p < 0.000), indicating that SOCUT affects teachers’ instructional practices such as clarity of instruction, cognitive activation, and classroom management in the classroom. IP among teachers is a moderate predictor of JSPRO (β = 0.290, SE = 0.024, p < 0.001), suggesting that instructional practice influences their perceptions of job satisfaction. TEAMIN is a weak but significant predictor of JSPRO (β = 0.130, SE = 0.024, p < 0.000), indicating that teachers with higher TEAMIN tend to experience more job satisfaction. Subsequently, the standardized indirect effects in the structural model (refer to Fig. 6) were analyzed, and SOCUT was found to affect positively JSPRO through TEAMIN (β = 0.017, SE = 0.004, p < 0.001). Although the mediation effect of team innovation is low, the results of the current study indicate that teachers who tend to have high social utility motivation also have a higher job satisfaction thanks to their interest in teamwork. Similarly, IP is a weak but significant mediator in the relationship between SOCUT and JSPRO (β = 0.045, SE = 0.008, p < 0.000). Analysis of indirect paths reveals that social utility motivation for teaching instructional practice positively affects teachers’ JS, which can increase their perceptions of job satisfaction. TEAMIN and IP, the mediating variables of the study, explain 6% of the total variation in job satisfaction with the profession. The variance explained by both mediator variables remained consistent in models where they were considered both separately and together. It can be concluded that neither mediator variable exert suppressive effect on the other.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Multiple mediation model (Model 4) results. Standardized regression coefficients are given with standard errors in parenthesis. ***p < 0.001

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Comparing Model 2, Model 3, and Model 4, we see that TEAMIN, one of the mediators, has a higher impact on the total effect than IP. In Model 2, where TEAM is the mediator, the total effect is 0.370. In Model 3, where IP is the mediator, the total effect is 0.370. In Model 4, the calculated total effect is 0.381. It can be seen that both mediator variables are effective in explaining the total effect. The increase in the total effect in Model 4 indicates that the contribution of both variables to the model is significant. However, the contribution of IP in the explanation of the mediation effect is higher than that of TEAM. Based on this, it can be said that IP (having a positive disciplinary atmosphere in their classrooms, integrating and applying knowledge in the context of problem solving, demonstrating substantial support for their students) is relatively more effective than TEAMIN in increasing the job satisfaction of highly motivated teachers.

Thereafter, the control variable in the structural model was analyzed, and the outcomes reveal that the total years of teaching experience have a significant negative association with job satisfaction (β =  − 0.061, SE = 0.023, p < 0.001). This implies that as teachers acquire more experience, they are likely to view their work environment as less innovative.

In conclusion, the SEM analysis demonstrates that social utility motivation for teaching has a moderate and statistically significant total effect on job satisfaction with the profession (β = 0.381, SE = 0.029, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the partial mediation model used in the study explains 40% of the overall variance in job satisfaction among teachers and offers further evidence for the link between team innovation and teaching practices in schools as perceived by teachers.

Discussion

This research aims to investigate the effects of SOCUT’s teacher outcomes on several organizational variables. The study examines whether TEAMIN and IP mediate the relationship between SOCUT and teacher JS. The research was carried out by the responses of 2539 teachers participating throughout Türkiye.

Analysis results show that SOCUT increases teachers’ JS, which supports the literature showing that SOCUT contributes to all components of the school, especially students and teachers (Kılınç et al., 2012; Richardson & Watt, 2014; Turner et al., 2011). In other words, our research is in line with the studies revealing that SOCUT increases teachers’ JS. Similarly, the available research reveals that JS is positively associated with SOCUT (Kılınç et al., 2012). Given the available evidence, the results of the study provide substantial information on that SOCUT increases JS. Based on the findings derived from the study, when teachers believe that the work they do impacts the development of children positively and benefits the society with SOCUT, their job satisfaction is positively affected due to their strong social responsibilities no matter what difficulties they encounter (An et al., 2021; Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014; McLean et al., 2019; Pepe et al., 2017; Torsney et al., 2019). Job satisfaction is closely intertwined with the enduring presence of teachers. However, it also engenders a profound impact on the welfare of teachers and their students, fostering a comprehensive combination within educational institutions and fortifying the esteemed standing of the teaching career (Toropova et al., 2021).

The current study presents findings that there is relationship between teachers’ perceptions of instructional practices and job satisfaction. According to Caprara et al. (2006), teachers report that they become more motivated when they evaluate their practices as meaningful. Furthermore, Opdenakker and Van-Damme’s (2006) study establishes a connection between high job satisfaction among teachers and their emphasis on implementing innovative practices in the classroom. This finding is consistent with other studies in the literature that support the relationship between job satisfaction and innovative practices. In the studies mentioned above, it has been discovered that teachers have relatively higher JS when their SOCUT is high in general. The research findings are also consistent with the previous literature, which shows that IP contributes to positive multifaceted results in school organization (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Rincón-Gallardo & Fleisch, 2016; Schleicher, 2016). Therefore, current research findings also contribute relatively to the literature focusing on the consequences of teachers’ IP at school, which increases teacher JS (Klassen et al., 2009).

It is discovered in the study that there is an essential relationship between teachers’ perceptions of team innovation practices (TEAMIN) and their perceptions of job satisfaction (JS). The research of Buyukgoze et al, (2022) supports our findings regarding the relationship between TEAMIN and JS. Wang et al. (2020) provide evidence that JS increases when teachers are involved in collaborative practices at school. Reynolds et al. (2014) also emphasizes that school innovation is one of the necessary conditions for educational effectiveness. Due to the relatively fewer number of studies conducted directly between TEAMIN and JS, further investigation on these two subjects is needed. Therefore, it seems that this study will guide new researchers and shed light on this gap in the literature.

This study presents notable information on that IP and TEAMIN have essential roles in teachers’ job satisfaction in the relationship between SOCUT and JS. In this study, it is found that the direct effect of SOCUT on job satisfaction is high due to teachers’ belief that they contribute to society and children, and their social responsibility. Based on this finding, it is evident that SOCUT plays a positive role in increasing the perceptions of JS. Hence, the studies in which the relationship between SOCUT and JS was discovered (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014; Liu et al., 2023; Turner et al., 2011) are consistent with the current study findings which indicate that innovative practices (IP) and collaborative teaming (TEAMIN) serve as intermediary relationships to social utility motivation for teaching (SOCUT) and job satisfaction (JS). The study suggests that when teachers believe that their work positively impacts children’s development and benefits society, they are more likely to experience job satisfaction. This sense of social responsibility is attributed to coordinated teaching and pedagogical work through effective teamwork.

Current study adds to the collaborative research by expanding on the existing literature that validates the connections between the theoretical constructs and the independent and dependent variables. The findings of the study reinforce these connections and highlight the importance of further collaborative research in the field. It was hypothesized that IP and TEAMIN have a partially mediating effect in the relation between SOCUT and JS. Teachers’ social responsibility to contribute to society through teaching can lead to a positive perception of job satisfaction. However, more than job satisfaction is needed to ensure higher IP and TEAMIN. In other words, while IP and TEAMIN are definitely linked to SOCUT and JS, higher IP and TEAMIN may not necessarily guarantee job satisfaction. Therefore, it is suggested that future research should focus on exploring the impact of various organizational and individual characteristics on this relationship to better comprehend the factors that influence the constructs examined in this study.

The research reveals fundamentally that SOCUT affects teachers’ JS both directly and indirectly. Based on this preliminary result, one of the ways to increase teachers’ JS is to take measures in order to strengthen SOCUT in schools. In this process attempt to increase teachers’ IP levels, TEAMIN’s efforts to develop new ideas in teaching and learning will also contribute to teachers’ increasing JS.

Limitations and Future Research

This study has certain limitations in terms of measuring its findings. Specifically, the research utilized data from the 2018 TALIS application conducted by the OECD. First of all, it should be noted that the measures of social utility motivation for teaching, instructional practice, collective team innovation, and the assessment of job satisfaction in this study rely on the participating teachers’ self-evaluations, subjective thoughts, and perceptions. In this study, first of all, direct, indirect and mediated relationships between variables were examined using a cross-sectional design. Therefore, a cause-and-effect relationship cannot be established between the research variables. In the future, researchers could also examine changes in the relationships between variables over time using a longitudinal research design. Moreover, given our focus on the impact of SOCUT on JS, the interactive effects of other motivational factors and sources were not tested in this study. As other sources of motivation, for example, social utility motivation will affect job satisfaction, future research should emphasize this aspect to get a more comprehensive picture (Chang & Sung, 2024). In order to contribute to our findings to produce more robust and powerful inferences, researchers need more replication with studies focused on school and teacher development. By conducting further research using mixed methods and experimental designs in future studies, scholars can obtain more comprehensive insights into the impact of social utility motivation on teaching, instructional practice, collective team innovation, and job satisfaction. Finally, we only investigated the mediating effect of TEAMIN and IP. Therefore, we suggest that researchers should examine the effects of other organizational behavior variables in future studies. It is important to note that the study relied only on teacher questionnaire data from the Turkish Island region and has certain limitations. Besides, the partial intermediary model that will be established in future studies can be compared according to the countries participating in TALIS.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study established a model detailing the relationships between SOCUT and JS mediated by IP and TEAMIN. Teachers’ social responsibility to contribute to society through teaching can lead to a positive perception of job satisfaction. Given the role of a teacher’s social responsibility, this study may provide a method for enhancing teachers’ job satisfaction. We would also like to highlight two crucial findings and related recommendations here. First, our results confirm that social good motivation is a significant factor in job satisfaction. The research basically reveals that SOCUT affects teachers’ JS both directly and indirectly. Based on this preliminary result, one of the ways to increase teachers’ JS is to take measures to strengthen SOCUT in schools. While more research is needed to investigate how teachers’ SOCUT is reflected in their teachers’ JS, it is easy to assume that such a situation increases teachers’ JS. Such an issue, therefore, needs to be considered in the context of current efforts to increase teachers’ SOCUT. More support from education offices and policymakers in increasing teachers’ JS should be considered. Secondly, in increasing teachers’ IP, TEAMIN’s efforts to develop new ideas in teaching and learning would also contribute to increasing teachers’ JS. This raises the issue of the nature of these IPs and the development of TEAMIN in schools. Therefore, we recommend further qualitative studies in many aspects, particularly on teachers’ job satisfaction. More than job satisfaction is needed to ensure higher IP and TEAMIN. In other words, while IP and TEAMIN are indeed linked to SOCUT and JS, higher IP and TEAMIN may not guarantee job satisfaction. Therefore, it is suggested that future research should focus on exploring the impact of various organizational and individual characteristics on this relationship to understand better the factors influencing the constructs examined in this study. However, school administrators and policymakers should be aware that building innovative communities in schools and IP can benefit teachers’ job satisfaction and other positive outcomes already highlighted in the literature.