Introduction

Achieving water security has become a major challenge for the countries of the world, including the Middle East. It is therefore essential to reestablish new water management strategies across regions, especially as many of the world's economies will be impacted in future by the quality of water supply management. Ensuring its availability for future generations requires attention to it, taking it on the shoulders of the individual and society, and working to increase its resources worldwide. Groundwater contributes to being an important component of the total water needs of Egypt at the present time. Nowadays, the government is suffering from great pressures to meet the growing demand for water due to population growth and social changes that have occurred in the recently developed urban communities (Hussien 2021). The issue of groundwater management for sustainability has become one of the main and important topics for decision makers in water management in all of the World and in preparing public water plans, especially for countries that suffer from limited water resources (Zhang and Wang 2021; Sundara et al. 2021; Ismail et al. 2023a). Egypt is one of the countries that is characterized by limited water resources (Hussien 2021). In contrast, there is an increasing demand for water resources for development needs and raising the normal of living. The Moghra Oasis in the Egyptian Western Desert (EWD) is one of promising areas for the groundwater potential in this time, while the Egyptian governments are trying to pay attention for the extending the land reclamation and water resources management (El Sabri et al. 2016; Ismail et al. 2023b). This groundwater resource should be used efficiently and equitably on a long-term basis, while sustaining its quality and environmental diversity.

Water resource management and sustainability require an understanding of the hydrological parameters of groundwater, which control water movement and storage in porous media (Ismail et al. 2023a). Therefore, it is necessary to understand some parameters associated with groundwater aquifers, including porosity, hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, aquifer thickness, the sediments that make up groundwater aquifers, well loss and formation loss (Masoud 2020; El Osta et al. 2021). A growing population may cause the sustainable development of groundwater resources to be a great challenge by 2050, according to Gleeson et al. (2012) and the United Nations (2012). The World Bank (2017) predicts that 40% of the world's water supplies will be depleted by 2030 due to climate change and population expansion. There is a big problem in Middle Eastern and North African countries due to the scarcity of water, which needs to draw an optimal plan of water resources management for sustainable development (Friedman et al. 1984; Schaible 1999; Galloway et al. 2003; Amer et al. 2012; Sikdar 2019; Nahin et al. 2019). Aquifer hydraulic parameters, saturated thickness, the distances between the production wells, maximum drawdown, well design, groundwater flow and recharge have been considered the essential parameters in the management and sustainable development of groundwater aquifer (Masoud 2020; Abdelazeem et al. 2020; Shinde et al. 2022).

The planning, implementation, and monitoring of many groundwater management methods can be made easier with aquifer map** and pum** tests at the appropriate level (Shinde et al. 2022). It will, in turn, improve irrigation services and overall water resource sustainability. Therefore, the objective of this article is to utilize of pum** test methods, including step and long-duration tests of forty well datasets to identify the hydraulic properties of the water bearing formation in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis in the (EWD). Results from pum** tests in conjunction with the other hydrogeological data such as aquifer thickness and groundwater flow are the most appropriate for practitioners designing aquifer characterization programs for groundwater sustainability.

Study site

Recently, efforts have been made by the Egyptian government to feed its growing population and bridge the gap between food production and consumption through the project of 1.5 million feddans (Hussien 2021). Egypt is making a serious attempt to invade its vast deserts, especially those on the western side. The Moghra Oasis project is located in the EWD. Today, this area has attracted the attention of the Egyptian government for agricultural reclamation, which depends on groundwater resources. Accordingly, this study focuses on the new reclamation area in the Moghra Oasis, which lies between the latitudes 30° 00− to 30° 14− N and longitudes 28° 20− to 28° 34− E (Fig. 1a). Regarding agricultural activities, fourteen groundwater wells were drilled in order to reclaim this area (Fig. 1b). For the purpose of sustainable development for groundwater resources in the study area, we must evaluate the hydrogeological basics such as the safe and optimum distance between the drilled wells to prevent cone of depression, transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, well loss, formation loss, groundwater flow direction, recharge and discharge areas. According to El Sabri et al. (2016), the Moghra Oasis is described by an arid condition by temperatures ranging from 41.4 °C in August to 10.7 °C in December. Humidity levels range from 39.5% in December to 19% in June. During the last 15 years, the wind speed reaches 3.7 m/sec n September, while in January and February, it reaches 2.8 m/sec. Except for sudden rainstorms, there is little rainfall and the evaporation rate varies between 29.20 (May) and 5.40 mm/day in December (Nahin et al. 2016).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Location map of Moghra Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt, (a) and drilled groundwater wells and direction of hydrogeological cross sections in the new reclamation area (b)

Full size image

Geomorphological and geological settings

Geomorphologically, the Moghra Oasis is made of sand dune belts, which are mainly characterized by sand sheets located on the surface of the Oasis, and gravely plains (Araffa et al. 2021). A digital elevation model (DEM) with a 30-m resolution had been constructed (Fig. 2a). The topography of the concerned area is characterized by very low elevation in the northeastern corner and the southern areas (95–09.9 m below mean sea level). At 30.1 to 66 m, the uppermost point is found in the east, while the most parts of the study area have relatively low elevation values ranging from zero to 30 m (Hussien 2021). In geological point of view, the surface of the Moghra Oasis in general is composed of Miocene, Pliocene, and Quaternary deposits (El Sabri et al. 2016; Abdelazeem et al. 2021). Majority of the Oasis is composed of Lower Miocene rocks (Moghra Formation) and Middle Miocene rocks of Marmarica Formation (Abdelazeem et al. 2021). The Moghra Formation constitutes the floor of Moghra Oasis and well exposed at the northeastern edge. Locally and based on the constructed geological map (Fig. 2b), mostly continental to shallow marine clastic layers, such as shale and white carbonate beds, intercalated vertebrates, silicified wood, and marine echinoids, make up the Moghra Formation in the study area (Haridy 2020), while the uppermost carbonate layer transitional to Marmarica Formation appears in the West of the area. Structurally, the study area has a series of folds that characterize Miocene terrain. Further, the study area is dissected by some normal faults that belong to two different systems, especially in the northern portion; the NW–SE and NE–SW systems (Fig. 2b). These faults have a direct impact on increasing the thickness of the aquifer, and the effect on the level and movement of groundwater (Hussien 2021).

Fig. 2
figure 2

a Digital elevation model (DEM) in meter and b Geological map of the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image

Data availability and methods

The thickness, porosity, permeability, transmissivity, and recharging sources of the groundwater aquifers play important characters in the sustainability of groundwater resources and their best management for various uses, including drinking and agriculture (El Osta et al. 2021). Aquifer type, discharge rate, and well storage determine the validity of these parameters. In this study, many field and office works had been carried in order to reach the target of this work. During field trip and through collaboration with the groundwater sectors and drilling companies, we collected complete hydrogeological datasets of groundwater wells (Fig. 1b). The data include well logs and pum** tests as well as archived details of hydrological and drilling reports, including the size and location of screens and pumps. Based on the availability of all these datasets, we are able to perform the following methods to achieve the aim of this study:

  1. 1.

    Making an inventory of the existing forty groundwater well.

  2. 2.

    Carrying out of water level (mean sea level) and total dissolved solids (TDS) measurements, taking into account the representative of the aquifer in the study area.

  3. 3.

    Three hydrogeological cross sections (N–S, NW–SE and NE–SW) had been constructed utilizing GIS 10.2 methodologies, to define the subsurface facies with horizontal and vertical alterations in the research region based on the 40 well logs (Fig. 1b).

  4. 4.

    Forty pump test data (long duration and step test) were analyzed using AQUIFER TEST, (2016) to understand withdrawal behavior with flow and well. The following equations were used to determine the aquifer and well parameters, including transmissivity (T), hydraulic conductivity (K), radius of influence (Ri), specific capacity (C), well loss, formation loss, well efficiency (γ) and safe yield (Sy) from drilled wells:

  5. 5.

    For long-duration pum** test analysis, Theis (1935) and Cooper & Jacob modifications (1946) introduced a groundwater tool for determining the hydraulic properties of aquifers without leakage. The analysis is performed by fitting a Theis type curve to the drawdown data plotted over time on double logarithmic axes. On the other hand, the radius of influence is calculated based on Dragoni (1998).

    $$T = 2.3 \, Q/4 \, \Pi \Delta S$$
    (1)
    $$K \, = \, T/H$$
    (2)
    $${\text{Ri}} = 3000 \times sw \times \sqrt k$$
    (3)

T means transmissivity (m2/day), Q equal discharge rate (m3/day), π=3.141592635, ∆S is the amount of change in the water level drop during one logarithmic cycle (m), K is the hydraulic conductivity (m/day), H equal aquifer thickness (m), Ri is the radius of influence, and sw (in meter) is the water level drawdown in the pum** well.

Moreover, specific capacity (Sc) is defined, as the pum** well's yield efficiency under steady-state conditions. The coefficient Sc (m2/day) is measured by dividing the discharge rate (Q) by the overall decline of groundwater levels (∆S) in 24 h (Priebe et al. 2018). This calculation considers the drawdown attributable to both well loss and aquifer loss. According to the constructed relationships between Q in m2/day and ∆S inside the pum** well, the Sc values of 40 drilled wells had been calculated.

  • For step-pum** test analysis (based on the graphical method of Rorabaugh (1953); Kruseman and de Ridder 1990)

    $$S \, = \, BQ \, + \, CQ^{2}$$
    (4)

In each stage (minimum three steps), S equals the predicted drawdown (m), Q equals the discharge rate (m3/h), B equals the formation loss coefficient (h/m2), and C equals the well loss coefficient (h2/m5). The amount of the drawdown due to formation loss (BQ) and the drawdown due to well loss (CQ2) is the decline in a pumped well (S). The equation above is modified as follows when the drawdown is divided by the well's discharge rate:

$$S/Q = B + CQ$$
(5)

The well's actual drawdown is shown by the S/Q ratio. On the other hand, the following equation can also be used to compute the well efficiency % (γ) at any pum** rate:

$$\gamma = \, BQ \, / \, \left( {BQ \, + \, CQ^{2} } \right)$$
(6)

The safe yield (Sy) of a groundwater well is a controversial hydrological expression that describes how much groundwater can be discharged by a pump well without rapidly lowering the water table. Sy is calculated according to the analysis and measurement of the equivalent drawdowns for each step of the step-pum** test (Masoud 2020). Because of calculating well efficiency for each stage and creating an illustrative graph illustrating pum** rate (m3/h) versus well efficiency (Y-axis), the optimum discharge (X-axis) is detected as high well efficiency (Y-axis) for each well.

  1. 5.

    By integrating the geographic information system (GIS 10.2) and Surfer (v14), some thematic maps are created based on hydrogeological data, including aquifer thickness, water table, groundwater flow direction, drawdown, transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity and radius of influence as well as salinity maps. The contouring and zonation of these maps have been done using GIS by interpolation module based on Kriging method.

Observation results and discussion

Hydrogeological setting

This study used datasets of 40 wells drilled in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis with total depth ranging from 94 to 200 m to investigate the dimensions and conditions of the water-bearing formations (Moghra aquifer). Based on the constructed hydrogeological cross sections of N–S, NW–SE and NW–SE direction (Fig. 3), the Moghra aquifer in the area was classified into three-water bearing layers disconnected by clay and shale beds. The water bearing sediments are mainly consisted of medium to coarse sand with little gravel. These layers are hydraulically connected by faults (El Sabri et al. 2016). The upper zone of the aquifer was covered by sand sheet and wadi deposits (Fig. 3). The Moghra aquifer is of confined condition at the north and southeast portions where the water level is higher than the aquifer level, while it unconfined at the northwest and central parts (Fig. 4). Geological structures influence the Moghra aquifer thickness by throwing normal faults westward and northward, increasing the thickness of the aquifer in these directions (Abdel Mogith et al. 2013). Accordingly, the Moghra aquifer's saturation thickness in the area ranged between 30 and 102 m (Table 1) and was constrained by numerous thin clay layers of varying thickness. As a result, the aquifer thickness with the highest is nearby to the northwest and eastern portions of the region as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Three hydrogeological cross sections in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image
Fig. 4
figure 4

Thickness distribution map of Moghra aquifer in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image
Table 1 Calculated hydrogeological data and hydraulic parameters in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis
Full size table

Groundwater depth and movement

Depth to groundwater in the area of study had been ranged between 40.1 m and 73.6 m below the ground surface. This depth increases toward the northeastern side of the area as shown in Fig. 5a. Based on the data of depth to water and elevation of the ground surface at all wells, water levels were calculated and their distribution map with flow direction was constructed (Table 1 and Fig. 5b). It is noticed that groundwater level is below the mean sea level for all wells (ranges from -72 to -26.6 m) as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 5b. Groundwater flow directions are mainly from south and north toward the central part of the region illustrating the high discharging rate of groundwater. The aquifer recharge is primarily determined by aquifer-saturated thickness, hydraulic conductivity, hydraulic gradient, and cross-sectional area. The Moghra aquifer in the study area can be recharged from different possible sources including precipitation directly on the aquifer outcrops, intrusion of the Mediterranean Sea, and groundwater from Marmarica aquifer (post-Moghra aquifer). In the southern part of Qattara Depression, Rizk and Davis (1991) estimated that 2.3 m3/sec of groundwater flow enters the Moghra aquifer from the Nubian artesian aquifer. This value is in line with the previous estimated values of 2.84 m3/sec and 2.76 m3/sec by Ezzat (1977) and Amer et al. (1981), respectively. Recently, based on the stable isotopes analysis of deuterium and oxygen-18, El Sabri et al. (2016) concluded that of Moghra aquifer had been received a significant amount of old Nile water that was subjected to evaporation before infiltration. In addition, the recharge due to the lateral seepage from the nearby Pleistocene aquifer, which is directly recharged from the recent Nile water. On the other hand, the three water-bearing units of Moghra aquifer share a common origin, indicating that they are connected hydraulically and that the aquifer functions as a single hydrogeological unit.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Distribution maps of depth to water (a) and water table (b) in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image

The hydraulic parameters

Hydraulic parameters show an essential role in managing and sustaining groundwater resources. There are several parameters to predict hydraulic head drawdown in aquifer under proposed pum** schemes, including transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, radius of interference, specific capacity, maximum drawdown, well loss, formation loss, well efficiency, and optimum safe yield. These parameters were determined using pum** tests, advanced plotting methods and Aquifer test 2016 software. The outcomes of an analysis of 40 wells' long-duration and step-pum** tests are displayed in Fig. 6, for example, well No. 3 and recorded in Table 1.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Example of the long duration and step-drawdown pum** test analysis for well no. 3 in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image

Hydraulic characteristics of Moghra aquifer

The obtained results of long duration pum** tests indicated that the studied aquifer has a wide variety of transmissivity (T) between 631 and 3768 m2/day (Table 1). The quick lateral facies changes and variations in aquifer thickness in different locations are mostly responsible for this variety in T values (see Fig. 4). Distribution map of T (Fig. 7a) shows that the values are found to be high at the northwestern portion and decrease gradually toward the south and southeast sides. Decrease in T values reflects the increase in clay and shale contents and decrease in aquifer thickness in this direction (see Fig. 3). In accordance with Gheorghe Standards (1979), aquifer potentiality is classified based on T values into five grades (Table 2). The results indicate that the Moghra aquifer all over the area can be categorized as high potential aquifer (T > 500 as shown in Table 1).

Fig. 7
figure 7

Distribution maps of transmissivity (a) and hydraulic conductivity (b) for the Moghra aquifer in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image
Table 2 Potential of the aquifer based on transmissivity values (based on Gheorghe 1979)
Full size table

Similarly, the hydraulic conductivity (K) values ranged from 13.4 to 104.6 m/day (Table 1). Table 3 presents the values of K calculated according to Bouwer's (1978) criteria based on the type of sediments (Singh and Tripura 2022). As observed, the aquifer formations in the area are composed mainly of medium to coarse sand, with little gravel, especially in the Northwest. These highly calculated K values are a good indicator that the aquifer has a high groundwater potential, as demonstrated by a short recovery time. Distribution map of K (Fig. 7b) shows that the northwestern part of the area was characterized by high hydraulic conductivity, which provides close conformity with the material descriptions based on Bouwer Standards. Therefore, the portion in the study area is good for drilling wells with high yield.

Table 3 Calculated values of K (m/day) and material descriptions (Bouwer 1978)
Full size table

Hansen (1991) defines the radius of influence (Ri) as the radial distance from the center of the well to the point where there is no lowering of the water level or potentiometric surface. This occurs when the drop cones from two or more wells overlap (Masoud 2020). For sustainable development in a new reclamation area like Moghra Oasis, the Ri is very important for controlling the cone-shaped between neighboring production wells. Ri parameter in this study was calculated (Table 1), and the planned distance distribution contour map between the wells was generated as shown in Fig. 8a. Because the groundwater levels of neighboring wells overlap, the ideal radius of influence to avoid concave cones varies from 126.3 m on the far northwest side of the site to 581.3 m on the central side (Fig. 8a). Moreover, specific capacity (Sc) was calculated for 40 wells using Eq. 3 as listed in Table 1. Several factors influence Sc accuracy, including the well's design, pum** discharge rate, and consistency of pum** rate (Risser 2010). Spatial analysis of the Sc values indicates that Moghra aquifer has a wide range from 377.14 to 883.72 m2/day, with a mean value of about 643.39 m2/day. Sen (1995) classified the productivity of wells according to Sc values into high productivity (more than 432 m2/day), medium productivity (from 43.2 to 432 m2/day) and low productivity (from 4.32 to 43.2 m2/day). Accordingly, about 92.5% of the tested wells ta** to the Moghra aquifer have a high productive (more than 432 m2/day), while the rest (7.5%) have moderate productive. The discharge potential of wells with a high specific capacity is good with a low drawdown when they are designed and developed well (Masoud 2020). A well with a low specific capacity indicates a faulty design, such as improper pump placement, inadequate screen length, or screen blocking, leading to a sharp drop in water levels (Abdel Mogith et al. 2013). The average drawdown from long-term pum** tests for 40 groundwater wells ranged from 2.5 to 8 m, as shown in Fig. 8b. Higher drawdown values are seen in the central and northeastern parts of the study area, while low values are seen in the northwestern region. Due to the high density of wells with very small distances between them, small aquifer thickness and low hydraulic parameters, there are high drawdown values.

Fig. 8
figure 8

Distribution maps for the radius of influence (a) and the resulted drawdown (b) in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image

Assessment the performance of groundwater wells

In a fully penetrating well with increasing pum** rates, the step-drawdown method is typically used to estimate formation and well losses at each step (Sen 1995; El Osta 2012; Chen et al. 2022). A step-drawdown pump test was used to calculate formation loss (BQ), well loss (CQ2), and well efficiency (γ) for 40 wells with laminar and turbulent water flow into the well. Figure 6 illustrates a plot of analytical solutions and observations of step-pum** test for well no. 3 as an example. The results of analysis for 40 wells as listed in Table 1 revealed that the well loss coefficient ranges between 0.0004749 (h2/m5) and 0.0676 (h2/m5), while the formation loss coefficient ranged between 3.34 × 10–8 (h/m2) and 4.80 × 10–6 (h/m2). Furthermore, formation loss plus well loss estimated by the graphical method closely matches the measured well total drawdown (El Osta 2012). Otherwise, the average efficiency (γ) for all steps varies from 50.53% (well no. 9) to 98.08% (well no. 19). According to Table 1, 22 wells of the Moghra aquifer have a good to excellent efficiency, which is more than 70%. Further, there are 18 wells with moderate efficiency values, ranging from 50 to 70%, they require urgent reform and development, and it is important to know why they are so inefficient. These results also indicated that the drilled wells in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis exhibit relatively high well losses. These well losses may be due to partially clogged gravel interstitial around the well screen or screen hole with the formation of fine material in the early stages of well development (El Osta 2012; Masoud 2020). For the purpose of sustaining a groundwater supply in the area, especially since this is a newly reclaimed area, and based on the resulting values ​​of the Moghra aquifer parameters as well as from performance assessments of well, it is necessary to determine the wells optimal safe yield (Sy) in order to maintain and prolong the life of the aquifer in the area. Accordingly, Sy is important hydraulic factor, which measures the optimal withdrawal from well without high water level decline. Masoud (2016) determined Sy based on the relationship between the calculated efficiency of the well at each stage and the pum** rate (m3/h), where the average efficiency of the well (Y-axis) determines the maximum flow rate (X-axis). As shown in Fig. 9, the estimated Sy for the highly well efficiency ranges between 40 and 98 m3/h with an average value of about 61.35 m3/h (Table 1). These amounts of optimum discharge rates with ten hours' time of work and for 300 days per year are safe in light of the scarcity of water in the region, and it can be well exploited by using modern irrigation methods and choosing suitable crops in order to sustain groundwater resources. The outcomes are in line with the results of the model constructed by El Sabri, et al. (2016) which revealed that the water levels in the adjacent old reclamation area to the east of the study area would be declined by 6 to 11m and by 11 to 28 m during the year 2040 and 2065, respectively. These declines are caused by the present discharge rate from the actually working wells (250 wells) by maximum discharge rate equal to 120 m3/hour and per ten hours daily.

Fig. 9
figure 9

Estimating the safe yield of the study wells by the relationship between the discharge rate (m3/h) and well efficiency (%)

Full size image

Groundwater salinity (TDS)

To optimize groundwater sustainability, especially in arid and semi-arid areas like Moghra Oasis, the quality of groundwater must be evaluated alongside the quantity to ensure sustainable development. Accordingly, TDS of groundwater of the Moghra aquifer were measured in 40 wells as listed in Table 1. The results revealed that TDS ranged from 3709 to 5410 mg/L with an average value of 4353.83 mg/L. According to the TDS classification by Freeze and Cherry (1979) as listed in Table 4, the studied groundwater samples are considered brackish water type and can be used for irrigation taking into account the type of plants that fit with this salinity. Figure 10 shows that the salinity increases toward the southwest of the study area. A difference in salinity as shown in TDS distribution map is the result of the lithological properties and facies changes of the water bearing formation. Therefore, high exploitation of groundwater resource for agricultural purposes in Moghra Oasis may cause a drop in water levels and deteriorates groundwater quality that needs to be good managed for sustainable development.

Table 4 Groundwater classification based on TDS concentration (Freeze and Cherry 1979)
Full size table
Fig. 10
figure 10

Distribution maps of the total dissolved solids (TDS) in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis

Full size image

Moreover, the groundwater quality in the area should also be studied in detail with respect to measurements of major ions, minor elements, trace elements, and irrigation water quality indices (IWQI) and tested regularly for its suitability. The most recent, inexpensive, and timesaving methods can be used to accomplish this task, where crop efficiency and yield are highly dependent on soil properties and irrigation groundwater quality.

Finally, the expected outcomes of groundwater management are simulated with an increase in abstraction caused by more water demand. It is very important to manage the groundwater of Moghra aquifer, in order to prevent further drawdown in groundwater level and degradation of quality. The calculated aquifer characteristics are useful to decision makers and are considered preliminary data for the drilling of groundwater wells as well as the assessment of groundwater potential for agricultural irrigation.

Conclusions

Groundwater resources in Moghra Oasis prompted government and investment organizations in Egypt to develop 1.5 million feddans based on the availability of good soils. This study focused on the new reclamation area in Moghra Oasis, based on the datasets of forty wells that were recently drilled. The Moghra aquifer was classified into three water-bearing layers separated by clay and shale thin layers. The water bearing sediments were mainly composed of fine to medium sand with little gravel. It is necessary to map the Moghra aquifer in this study area and plan systematic groundwater management using aquifer and well methods such as step and long-duration pum** tests as well as drawing diagrams and maps. Groundwater resources need to be analyzed and managed to accommodate expanding irrigation requirements based on hydraulic parameters estimates. Moghra Oasis in Egypt currently has an increase in groundwater extraction from the aquifer beyond what is ecological, resulting in a fall in groundwater tables. In order to develop sustainably for groundwater and agriculture, such a study is necessary.

Overall, the results indicate that both high T and k values are good indicators for the high potentiality of Moghra aquifer. About 82% of the wells have a high specific capacity (more than 500 m2/day) indicating good designed of the drilled wells. In addition, 22 groundwater wells in the Moghra aquifer have a good to excellent efficiency (> 70%). In addition, the results indicate that the wells drilled in the new reclamation area of Moghra Oasis show relatively high well losses. Accordingly, the amounts of optimum discharge rates from the drilled wells (between 40 and 98 m3/h) with ten hours' time of work and for 300 days per year are safe in light of the shortage of water in the region. It can be well exploited by using modern irrigation methods and choosing suitable crops in order to sustain groundwater resources in the region.

Furthermore, groundwater TDS ranged from 3709 and 5410 mg/L with an average value of 4353.83 mg/L. Therefore, groundwater quality should be regularly tested to determine its suitability for different uses, especially with over-exploitation.