Abstract
Introduction
Existing research on technology-facilitated sexualized violence (TFSV) and unsolicited genital images in particular tends to focus on gender as an analytic category, including examining differences in experiences between men and women or focusing on women as a group. We examined heterogeneity among women in risk of receiving unsolicited genital images, as well as in responses and reactions to such images.
Methods
Through a TFSV- and intersectional-informed lens, we developed and piloted a measure to better assess women’s experiences with receiving unsolicited genital images (Study 1; N = 96) and then used this measure to examine heterogeneity in women’s experiences with regard to race, sexual orientation, age, and feminist identity (Study 2; N = 1245). Across both studies, data was collected between January 2019 and September 2020.
Results
We found that women’s risk of being subject to unsolicited genital images varied depending on individual characteristics, with risk heightened for younger women, White women with less salient feminist identities, and women higher in erotophilia. Using a data-driven approach, we created and compared clusters of women to examine heterogeneity in reactions and responses; these clusters highlighted how sexual orientation- and race-based disparities are reinscribed through image-based sexual violence.
Conclusions
We interpret our findings as being in conversation with additional work on the need for a more intersectional approach to TFSV which situates this form of violence in broader discourses surrounding sexism, racism, heterosexism, and other forms of oppression.
Policy Implications
We hope that our work can stimulate ongoing organizational and policy change to intervene upon the sending of unsolicited genital images and ensure that this form of TFSV is not trivialized.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Availability of Data and Material
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
Notes
Herein we use “unsolicited genital images” to refer to images received by women from men.
TFSV includes a broader range of computer-mediated behaviors: online sexual harassment; online image-based abuse; online sexual aggression/coercion; and online gender-based or sexual orientation-based harassment (Powell & Henry, 2016). (1) Online sexual harassment: “uninvited behaviors that explicitly communicate sexual desires or attention towards another individual” (Barak, 2005, p. 78) which also includes online harassment by a current or former partner; (2) Online image-based abuse: the creation, distribution, and threat of distribution of sexually explicit image(s) of another person without their consent (i.e., revenge pornography); (3) Online sexual aggression/coercion: obtaining “sexual cooperation by putting some kind of pressure on a victim” (Barak, 2005, p. 80) or creating, distributing, or threatening to distribute an image/video of a non-consensual sexual experience; and (4) Online gender and sexuality-based harassment: harassment (i.e., unwelcome comments that insult or cause discomfort to another individual) on the basis of a person’s gender, sexuality or sexual orientation” (Champion et al., 2022, 2021).
The original study included two sections: (1) a 15-min online Qualtrics survey with closed- and open-ended questions; and (2) a 30-to-60-min semi-structured interview conducted with participants who opted to partake. Qualtrics survey was used to explore the average psychosocial impacts of being a victim of TFSV, whereas the interviews provided a richer understanding of these experiences. In the survey section, participants were queried as to which type of TFSV victimization they experienced. Data from the mixed methods study included closed- and open-ended survey (N = 337) and interview (N = 10) responses. None of the women interviewees discussed unsolicited genital images; therefore, only survey responses were considered in the current study.
‘Women’ in Study 1 and Study 2 included anyone who self-identified as a woman.
A total of 170 women experienced online sexual harassment; of these, 96 (∼56%) provided open-ended responses of their experiences receiving unsolicited genital images from men.
The “feelings of value” variable was removed from analysis due to low frequencies, which violated statistical assumptions.
“Having a sexual interaction” with the sender was removed from the analysis due to low frequencies, which violated statistical assumptions.
References
Agresti, A. (2007). An introduction to categorical data analysis. Wiley.
Amundsen, R. (2020). ‘A male dominance kind of vibe’: Approaching unsolicited dick pics as sexism. New Media & Society, 23(6), 1465–1480. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820907025
Armstrong, E. A., Gleckman-Krut, M., & Johnson, L. (2018). Silence, power, and inequality: An intersectional approach to sexual violence. Annual Review of Sociology, 44, 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041410
Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61, 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3
Bailey, J., & Burkell, J. (2021). Tech-facilitated violence: Thinking structurally and intersectionally. Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 5(3), 531–542. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868021X16286662118554
Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
Blake, K. R., Bastian, B., & Denson, T. F. (2016). Perceptions of low agency and high sexual openness mediate the relationship between sexualization and sexual aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 42(5), 483–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21644
Bonomi, A. E., Anderson, M. L., Nemeth, J., Rivara, F. P., & Buettner, C. (2013). History of dating violence and the association with late adolescent health. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 821–821. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-821
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Carter Olson, C., & LaPoe, V. (2018). Combating the digital spiral of silence: Academic activists versus social media trolls. In J. R. Vickery & T. Everbach (Eds.), Mediating misogyny: Gender, technology, and harassment (pp. 271–292). Palgrave McMillan.
Cawvey, M., Hayes, M., Canache, D., & Mondak, J. J. (2018). Personality and victimization in the Americas. International Review of Victimology, 24(1), 123–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758017727345
Chadha, K., Steiner, L., Vitak, J., & Ashktorab, Z. (2020). Women’s responses to online harassment. International Journal of Communication, 14, 239–257.
Champion, A., Oswald, F., & Pedersen, C. L. (2021). Technology-facilitated sexual violence and suicide risk: A serial mediation model investigating bullying, depression, perceived burdensomeness, and thwarted belongingness. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 30(1), 125–141. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2020-0044
Champion, A., Oswald, F., Pearson, S., & Pedersen, C. L. (2023). Technology facilitated sexual violence: Report on intersectional environmental scan. BC Campus. https://bccampus.ca/projects/intersectional-sexualized-violence-project/
Champion, A. R., Oswald, F., Khera, D., & Pedersen, C. L. (2022). Examining the gendered impacts of technology-facilitated sexual violence: A mixed methods approach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(3), 1607–1624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02226-y
Citron, D. K. (2014). Hate crimes in cyberspace. Harvard University Press.
Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Colpitts, E. M. (2022). ‘Not even close to enough:’ Sexual violence, intersectionality, and the neoliberal university. Gender and Education, 34(2), 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2021.1924362
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. The University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140, 139–167.
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Map** the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241–1299.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608
Crocker, J., Voelkl, K., Testa, M., & Major, B. (1991). Social stigma: The affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.218
Davis, K. (2008). Intersectionality as buzzword: A sociology of science perspective on what makes a feminist theory successful. Feminist Theory, 9(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700108086364
Dion, K. L. (1975). Women’s reactions to discrimination from members of the same or opposite sex. Journal of Research in Personality, 9(4), 294–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(75)90004-5
Duggan, M. (2017). Online harassment 2017. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2017/07/11/online-harassment-2017/
Fahs, B., Plante, R. F., & McClelland, S. I. (2018). Working at the crossroads of pleasure and danger: Feminist perspectives on doing critical sexuality studies. Sexualities, 21(4), 503–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460717713743
Fisher, W., White, L., Byrne, D., & Kelley, K. (1988). Erotophobia-erotophilia as a dimension of personality. The Journal of Sex Research, 25(1), 123–151. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3812873
Fox, J., & Tang, W. Y. (2017). Women’s experiences with general and sexual harassment in online video games: Rumination, organizational responsiveness, withdrawal, and co** strategies. New Media & Society, 19(8), 1290–1307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816635778
Galpin, C. (2022). At the digital margins? A theoretical examination of social media engagement using intersectional feminism. Politics and Governance. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v10i1.4801
Gilmour, P. (2018). 13 genius ways to respond to unsolicited dick pics. Cosmopolitan. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/love-sex/a22785757/dick-pic-responses/
Green, P. (1979). The feminist consciousness. The Sociological Quarterly, 20(3), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1979.tb01221.x
Hackworth, L. (2018). Limitations of “just gender”: The need for an intersectional reframing of online harassment discourse and research. In J. R. Vickery & T. Everbach (Eds.), Mediating misogyny: Gender, technology, and harassment (pp. 51–70). Palgrave Macmillan.
Hangen, F., & Rogge, R. D. (2022). Focusing the conceptualization of erotophilia and erotophobia on global attitudes toward sex: Development and validation of the sex positivity–negativity scale. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(1), 521–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02085-7
Harris, B., & Vitis, L. (2020). Digital intrusions: Technology, spatiality and violence against women. Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 4(3), 325–341. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868020X15986402363663
Hayes, R. M., & Dragiewicz, M. (2018). Unsolicited dick pics: Erotica, exhibitionism or entitlement? Women’s Studies International Forum, 71, 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2018.07.001
Henderson-King, D. H., & Stewart, A. J. (1994). Women or feminists? Assessing Women’s Group Consciousness. Sex Roles, 31(9–10), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544276
Henderson-King, D. H., & Zhermer, N. (2003). Feminist consciousness among Russians and Americans. Sex Roles, 48, 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022403322131
Holland, K. J., & Cortina, L. M. (2013). When sexism and feminism collide. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2), 192–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313482873
Hooks, B. (1984). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Pluto Press.
Huiskes, P., Dinis, M. A. P., & Caridade, S. (2022). Technology-facilitated sexual violence victimization during the COVID-19 pandemic: Behaviors and Attitudes. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 31(9), 1148–1167. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2022.2089863
Hunt, E. (2017). I’ve been sent an unsolicited photo of a penis. How do I respond? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2017/mar/03/sent-unsolicited-photo-penis-how-do-i-respond
IBM Corporation. (1989, 2014). Two step cluster analysis. IBM. https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/spss-statistics/23.0.0?topic=option-twostep-cluster-analysis
Karasavva, V., Brunet, L., Smodis, A., Swanek, J., & Forth, A. (2023). Putting the Y in cyberflashing: Exploring the prevalence and predictors of the reasons for sending unsolicited nude or sexual images. Computers in Human Behavior, 140, 107593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107593
Karasavva, V., Swanek, J., Smodis, A., & Forth, A. (2022). Expectations vs reality: Expected and actual affective reactions to unsolicited sexual images. Computers in Human Behavior, 130, 107181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107181
Killean, R., McAlinden, A.-M., & Dowds, E. (2022). Sexual violence in the digital age: Replicating and augmenting harm, victimhood and blame. Social & Legal Studies, 31(6), 871–892. https://doi.org/10.1177/09646639221086592
Kodellas, S., Fisher, B. S., & Wilcox, P. (2015). Situational and dispositional determinants of workplace victimization: The effects of routine activities, negative affectivity, and low self-control. International Review of Victimology, 21(3), 321–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758015591930
Layland, E. K., Maggs, J. L., Kipke, M. D., & Bray, B. C. (2021). Intersecting racism and homonegativism among sexual minority men of color: Latent class analysis of multidimensional stigma with subgroup differences in health and sociostructural burdens. Social Science & Medicine, 293, 114602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114602
Leaper, C., & Arias, D. M. (2011). College women’s feminist identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for co** with sexism. Sex Roles, 64(7), 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9936-1
Lefkowitz, E. S., Gillen, M. M., Shearer, C. L., & Boone, T. L. (2004). Religiosity, sexual behaviors, and sexual attitudes during emerging adulthood. The Journal of Sex Research, 41(2), 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490409552223
Lewis, R., Rowe, M., & Wiper, C. (2017). Online abuse of feminists as an emerging form of violence against women and girls. The British Journal of Criminology, 57(6), 1462–1481. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw073
Marcotte, A. S., Gesselman, A. N., Fisher, H. E., & Garcia, J. R. (2021). Women’s and men’s reactions to receiving unsolicited genital images from men. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(4), 512–521. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1779171
McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(3), 1771–1800. https://doi.org/10.1086/426800
McClelland, S. I. (2016). Speaking back from the margins: Participant marginalia in survey and interview research. Qualitative Psychology, 3(2), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000061
McGinley, M., Wolff, J. M., Rospenda, K. M., Liu, L., & Richman, J. A. (2016). Risk factors and outcomes of chronic sexual harassment during the transition to college: Examination of a two-part growth mixture model. Social Science Research, 60, 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.04.002
McGlynn, C., Rackley, E., & Houghton, R. (2017). Beyond ‘revenge porn’: The continuum of image-based sexual abuse. Feminist Legal Studies, 25, 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-017-9343-2
McGlynn, C., Johnson, K., Rackley, E., Henry, N., Gavey, N., Powell, A., & Flynn, A. (2020). ‘It’s torture for the soul’: The harms of image-based sexual abuse. Social & Legal Studies, 30(4), 541–562. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663920947791
McHardy, S. (2022). Technology-facilitated sexual violence, student sexuality, and post-secondary institutions. In J. J. Fellows & L. Smith (Eds.), Gender, Sex, and Tech! An Intersectional Feminist Guide (pp. 64–82). Canadian Scholars.
Ménard, K. S., & Pincus, A. L. (2014). Child maltreatment, personality pathology, and stalking victimization among male and female college students. Violence and Victims, 29(2), 300–316. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-12-00098r1
Mitchell, K. J., Ybarra, M., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). The relative importance of online victimization in understanding depression, delinquency, and substance use. Child Maltreatment, 12(4), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559507305996
Moloney, M. E., & Love, T. P. (2018). Assessing online misogyny: Perspectives from sociology and feminist media studies. Sociology Compass, 12(5), e12577. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12577
Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2002). Perceived sexist events and feminist identity development attitudes: Links to women’s psychological distress. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 44–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002301003
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Oswald, F., Lopes, A., Skoda, K., Hesse, C. L., & Pedersen, C. L. (2020). I’ll show you mine so you’ll show me yours: Motivations and personality variables in photographic exhibitionism. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(5), 597–609. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1639036
Oswald, F., & Matsick, J. L. (2020). Examining responses to women’s same-sex performativity: Perceptions of sexual orientation and implications for bisexual prejudice. Journal of Bisexuality, 20(4), 417–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2020.1820420
Paasonen, S., Light, B., & Jarrett, K. (2019). The dick pic: Harassment, curation, and desire. Social Media + Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119826126
Paquette, G., Martin-Storey, A., Bergeron, M., Dion, J., Daigneault, I., Hébert, M., Ricci, S., & Castonguay-Khounsombath, S. (2021). Trauma symptoms resulting from sexual violence among undergraduate students: Differences across gender and sexual minority status. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(17), NP9226–NP9251. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519853398
Pettit-Toledo, M. T. (2022). Collective memory and intersectional identities: Healing unique sexual violence harms against women of color past, present and future. University of Hawai’i Law Review, 45, 346. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/uhawlr45&div=19&id=&page=
Poll, A., & Critchley, C. (2023). Development and validation of the feminist social identity scale. Current Psychology, 42(15), 12614–12629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02590-x
Powell, A., & Henry, N. (2016). Technology-facilitated sexual violence victimization: Results from an online survey of Australian adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(17), 3637–3665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516672055
Powell, A., & Henry, N. (2017). Sexual violence in a digital age. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58047-4
Powell, A., Henry, N., Flynn, A., & Scott, A. J. (2019). Image-based sexual abuse: The extent, nature, and predictors of perpetration in a community sample of Australian residents. Computers in Human Behavior, 92(1), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.009
Powell, A., Scott, A. J., & Henry, N. (2020). Digital harassment and abuse: Experiences of sexuality and gender minority adults. European Journal of Criminology, 17(2), 199–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370818788006
Ringrose, J., & Lawrence, E. (2018). Remixing misandry, manspreading, and dick pics: Networked feminist humour on Tumblr. Feminist Media Studies, 18(4), 686–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1450351
Ringrose, J., Milne, B., Mishna, F., Regehr, K., & Slane, A. (2022). Young people’s experiences of image-based sexual harassment and abuse in England and Canada: Toward a feminist framing of technologically facilitated sexual violence. Women’s Studies International Forum, 93, 102615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2022.102615
Rothwell, J. (2023). Teens spend an average of 4.8 hours on social media per day. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/512576/teens-spend-average-hours-social-media-per-day.aspx
Salerno-Ferraro, A. C., Erentzen, C., & Schuller, R. A. (2022). Young women’s experiences with technology-facilitated sexual violence from male strangers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(19–20), 17860–17885. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211030018
Semph, M. E. (1979). Emotional orientation towards sexuality: Its relation to expecting and perceiving contraceptive side effects [Unpublished honors thesis]. University of Western Ontario.
Serpe, C., Brown, C., Criss, S., Lamkins, K., & Watson, L. (2020). Bisexual women: Experiencing and co** with objectification, prejudice, and erasure. Journal of Bisexuality, 20(4), 456–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2020.1820421
Shi, X., & Zheng, Y. (2020). Perception and tolerance of sexual harassment: An examination of feminist identity, sexism, and gender roles in a sample of Chinese working women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(2), 217–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320903683
Siegel, J. A., & Calogero, R. M. (2021). Measurement of feminist identity and attitudes over the past half century: A critical review and call for further research. Sex Roles, 85(5), 248–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01219-w
Smith, M. (2018). Four in ten female millennials have been sent an unsolicited penis photo. Yougov. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/relationships/articles-reports/2018/02/16/four-ten-female-millennials-been-sent-dick-pic
Sparks, B., Stephens, S., & Trendell, S. (2023). Image-based sexual abuse: Victim-perpetrator overlap and risk-related correlates of coerced sexting, non-consensual dissemination of intimate images, and cyberflashing. Computers in Human Behavior, 148, 107879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107879
Stevens, S. M., Oswald, F., & Matsick, J. L. (2023). Latent class analysis of college women’s motivations for engaging in same-sex performativity. Personal Relationships, 30(2), 544–565. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12485
Tate, C. C., Ledbetter, J. N., & Youssef, C. P. (2013). A two-question method for assessing gender categories in the social and medical sciences. Journal of Sex Research, 50(8), 767–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.690110
Tarzia, L., Henderson-Brooks, K., Baloch, S., & Hegarty, K. (2024). Women higher education students’ experiences of sexual violence: A sco** review and thematic synthesis of qualitative studies. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(1), 704–720. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231162976
Thompson, L. (2018). “I can be your Tinder nightmare”: Harassment and misogyny in the online sexual marketplace. Feminism & Psychology, 28, 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F0959353517720226
Træen, B., & Kvalem, I. L. (2023). Gender differences in sending nude pictures and videos across multiple relationship contexts in the adult Norwegian population. Sexuality & Culture, 27(2), 570–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-022-10028-0
Tziallas, E. (2015). Gamified eroticism: Gay male “social networking” applications and self-pornography. Sexuality and Culture, 19(4), 759–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9288-z
Velezmoro, R., Velezmoro, R., Negy, C., Negy, C., & Livia, J. (2012). Online sexual activity: Cross-national comparison between United States and Peruvian college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(4), 1015–1025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9862-x
Vitis, L., & Gilmour, F. (2017). Dick pics on blast: A woman’s resistance to online sexual harassment using humour, art and Instagram. Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal, 13(3), 335–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741659016652445
Waling, A., & Pym, T. (2017). ‘C’mon, no one wants a dick pic’: Exploring the cultural framings of the ‘dick pic’ in contemporary online publics. Journal of Gender Studies, 28(1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1394821
Wolff, J. M., Rospenda, K. M., & Colaneri, A. S. (2017). Sexual harassment, psychological distress, and problematic drinking behavior among college students: An examination of reciprocal causal relations. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(3), 362–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1143439
Wright, P. J., Bae, S., & Funk, M. (2013). United States women and pornography through four decades: Exposure, attitudes, behaviors, individual differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(7), 1131–1144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0116-y
Zucker, A. N. (2004). Disavowing social identities: What it means when women say, “I’m not a feminist, but….” Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 423–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00159.x
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Portions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Psychology Science (online May 2021).
Electronic Supplementary Material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Champion, A., Oswald, F., Hughes, S. et al. Beyond Just Gender: Diverse Women’s Experiences and Outcomes Associated with the Receipt of Unsolicited Genital Images. Sex Res Soc Policy (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-024-01002-6
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-024-01002-6