SpringerLink
Log in

Psychological effects of perceived crowding on time displacement behavior: mediating roles of perceived control loss and negative emotion, moderated by perceived waiting time

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study, grounded in the cognitive evaluation theory of psychology, examines how perceived crowding affects tourists’ time displacement behavior in crowded destinations, drawing on data from 494 analyzed questionnaires at Quanzhou West Street. With using regression analysis, it emphasizes that tourists’ perceived crowding primarily drives time displacement behavior, which is mediated by heightened negative emotions. Negative emotions emerge as the most significant outcome of perceived crowding. Furthermore, perceived waiting time notably amplifies crowding’s impact on control loss or time displacement behavior, surpassing its effect on negative emotions. We infer that the impact of perceived waiting time on crowding may not indefinitely amplify tourists’ extremely negative emotions. In addition, employing innovative fsQCA methodology provides a comprehensive insight into crowding’s interplay with control loss, negative emotions, and waiting time, offering a fresh perspective beyond regression analysis contained in the SEM model, which will be beneficial to future management of crowded destinations. This highlights the pressing need to address tourists’ emotional responses in crowding management, as these significantly shape motivation and expectations in destination settings. Therefore, the destination managers should reduce perceived waiting times, enhance crowding control, and implement crowding management to reduce tourists’ negative emotions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the first author on reasonable request at 15980301687@163.com.

Notes

  1. As per the existing literature, the minimal sample of SEM is based on the model complexity and basic measurement characteristics as follows: “Minimum sample size is 150: Models with seven or fewer constructs, modest commonalities (0.5), and no underidentified constructs.” (Hair et al., 2010, p.662). In order to ensure that the minimum sample size (150 samples) could be obtained, we collected 550 samples and 494 valid questionnaires.

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Institute for Social and Economic Research. Evaluation Practice, 12(2), 167–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Averill, J. R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80(4), 286–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunson, M. W., & Shelby, B. (1993). Recreation substitutability: A research agenda. Leisure Sciences, 15(2), 67–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, H., Liu, Q., & Bi, J. W. (2021). Perceived crowding and festival experience: The moderating effect of visitor-to-visitor interaction. Tourism Management Perspectives, 40, 100888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. M., & Batson, C. D. (1973). From Jerusalem to Jericho: A study of situational and dispositional variables in hel** behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(1), 100–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dion, D. (2004). Personal control and co** with retail crowding. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 15, 250-263. Please put this refernces in alphabetical order. Thank you so much.

  • Dodds, R., & Butler, R. (2019). The phenomena of overtourism: A review. International Journal of Tourism Cities, 5(4), 519–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, I., Lei, S. I., & Wassler, P. (2020). Digital free tourism–An exploratory study of tourist motivations. Tourism Management, 79, 104098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social exchange theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 335–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Co** as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(3), 466.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fruhauf, J., DeFranco, A. L., Murdock, E. J., & Brown, G. (2018). Tourist well-being: The intersection of place attachment, emotions, and tourism experiences. Tourism Management, 65, 156–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gendolla, G. H., & Silvestrini, N. (2011). Smiles make it easier and so do frowns: Masked affective stimuli influence mental effort. Emotion, 11(2), 320–328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gössling, S., McCabe, S., & Chen, N. C. (2020). A socio-psychological conceptualisation of overtourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 84, 102976.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Grandjean, D., & Scherer, K. R. (2008). Unpacking the cognitive architecture of emotion processes. Emotion, 8(3), 341–351.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.

  • Han, Y., Yang, G., & Zhang, T. (2021). Spatial-temporal response patterns of tourist flow under entrance tourist flow control scheme. Tourism Management, 83, 104246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications).

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt, S. (2023). Virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality: For astronaut mental health; and space tourism, education and outreach. Acta Astronautica, 203, 436–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, C. L. (2022). Applying cognitive evaluation theory to analyze the impact of gamification mechanics on user engagement in resource recycling. Information & Management, 59(2), 103602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. J., & Lee, S. K. (2019). Antecedents and consequences of perceived crowding in a festival setting: The moderating role of perceived control. Journal of Travel Research, 58(1), 84–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., & Li, X. (2014). Understanding the effects of crowding on visitor satisfaction and resource protection in national parks: A review of the literature. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 32(4), 39–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, D., Lee, C., & Sirgy, M. J. (2016). Examining the differential impact of human crowding versus spatial crowding on visitor satisfaction at a festival. Journal of Travel &Tourism Marketing, 33(3), 293–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., Gross, S. E., Pfaff, H., & Dresen, A. (2020). Waiting time, communication quality, and patient satisfaction: An analysis of moderating influences on the relationship between perceived waiting time and the satisfaction of breast cancer patients during their inpatient stay. Patient Education and Counseling, 103(4), 819–825.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, P. Q., & Kovacs, J. F. (2021). Creative tourism and creative spectacles in China. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 49, 34–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Z., Zhang, S., Liu, X., Kozak, M., & Wen, J. (2020). Seeing the invisible hand: Underlying effects of COVID-19 on tourists’ behavioral patterns. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 18, 100502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, L., Cui, T., Wu, J., Cao, R., & Ye, Y. (2021). Encouraging tourist citizenship behavior through resource uniqueness and service quality: The mediating role of emotions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 27(1), 45–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardi, S., Sassetti, S., & Cavaliere, V. (2019). Linking employees’ affective commitment and knowledge sharing for an increased customer orientation. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 31(11), 4293–4312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Machleit, K. A., Eroglu, S. A., & Mantel, S. P. (2000). Perceived retail crowding and shop** satisfaction: What modifies this relationship? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(1), 29–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mannell, R. C., & Zuzanek, J. (1991). The nature and variability of leisure constraints in daily life: The case of the physically active leisure of older adults. Leisure Sciences, 13(4), 337–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J. J. (2011). Exploring the relationship between goal achievement orientation and mindfulness in collegiate athletics. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 5(1), 44–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, A. J. (2020). The hidden side of travel: Epilepsy and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 81, 102856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mell, H., Baumard, N., & André, J. B. (2021). Time is money. Waiting costs explain why selection favors steeper time discounting in deprived environments. Evolution and Human Behavior, 42(4), 379–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, T. A., & McCool, S. F. (2003). Co** with stress in outdoor recreational settings: An application of transactional stress theory. Leisure Sciences, 25(2–3), 257–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nian, S., Chen, M., Zhang, X., Li, D., & Ren, J. (2023). How outstanding Universal Value attractiveness and tourism crowding Affect visitors’ satisfaction? Behavioral Sciences, 13(2), 112.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Odou, P., & Schill, M. (2020). How anticipated emotions shape behavioral intentions to fight climate change. Journal of Business Research, 121, 243–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papathanasiou, I. V., Tsaras, K., Neroliatsiou, A., & Roupa, A. (2015). Stress: Concepts, theoretical models and nursing interventions. American Journal of Nursing Science, 4(2– 1), 45–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pappas, N., & Glyptou, K. (2021). Accommodation decision-making during the COVID-19 pandemic: Complexity insights from Greece. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 93, 102767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, I. J., Kim, J., Kim, S. S., Lee, J. C., & Giroux, M. (2021). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travelers’ preference for crowded versus non-crowded options. Tourism Management, 87, 104398.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pichierri, M., Petruzzellis, L., & Passaro, P. (2023). Investigating staycation intention: The influence of risk aversion, community attachment and perceived control during the pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 26(4), 511–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ragin, C. C. (2006). Set Relations in Social Research: Evaluating Their Consistency and Coverage. Political Analysis, 14(3), 291–310. Please put this refernce in alphabetical order. Thank you so much.

  • Rasoolimanesh, S. M., Jaafar, M., Marzuki, A., Ramayah, T., & Rahman, S. A. (2016). How Visitor and Environmental characteristics Influence Perceived Crowding. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 21(9), 952–967.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro, M. A., & Prayag, G. (2019). Perceived quality and service experience: Mediating effects of positive and negative emotion. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 28(3), 285–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudd, M., Vohs, K. D., & Aaker, J. (2012). Awe expands people’s perception of time, alters decision making, and enhances well-being. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1130–1136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shi, W., Connelly, B. L., & Hoskisson, R. E. (2017). External corporate governance and financial fraud: Cognitive evaluation theory insights on agency theory prescriptions. Strategic Management Journal, 38(6), 1268–1286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sit, H. F., Hall, B. J., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Ju, Q., & Gan, Y. (2022). The effect of positive mental imagery training on Chinese University students with depression: A pilot study. Current Psychology, 41, 3716–3729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stokols, D. (1972). A social-psychological model of human crowding phenomena. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 38(2), 72–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, W., & Zhang, Y. (2023). More positive, more innovative: A moderated-mediation model of supervisor positive feedback and subordinate innovative behavior. Current Psychology, 42(33), 29682–29694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, L., Jia, B., & Huang, Y. (2022). How do destination negative events trigger tourists’ perceived betrayal and boycott? The moderating role of relationship quality. Tourism Management, 92, 104536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tarkang, M. E., Alola, U. V., Nange, R. Y., & Ozturen, A. (2022). Investigating the factors that trigger airline industry purchase intention. Current Psychology, 41, 1716–1727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Rompay, T. J. L., Galetzka, M., Pruyn, A. T. H., et al. (2008). Human and spatial dimensions of retail density: Revisiting the role of perceived control. Psychology and Marketing, 25(4), 319–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, J. C., & Barnes, J. W. (2001). Control and affect: The influence of feeling in control of the retail environment on affect, involvement, attitude, and behavior. Journal of Business Research, 54(2), 139–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, M., Jiang, H., **, X., Li, J., & Li, B. (2014). Crowd Simulation and its applications: Recent advances. Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 29(5), 799–811.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Yan, N., & Tong, T. (2021). Longer waiting, more cancellations? Empirical evidence from an on-demand service platform. Journal of Business Research, 126, 162–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Bi, Y., Zheng, X., & Tsaur, R. (2019a). Safety forecasting and early warning of highly aggregated Tourist crowds in China. Ieee Access: Practical Innovations, Open Solutions, 7, 119026–119040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Zheng, X. M., & Tsaur, R. C. (2019b). Occurrence mechanism and co** paths of accidents of highly aggregated tourist crowds based on system dynamics. Plos One, 14(9), e0222389.

  • Yin, J., Cheng, Y., Bi, Y., et al. (2020). Tourists perceived crowding and destination attractiveness: The moderating effects of Perceived Risk and Experience Quality. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 18, 100489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Bi, Y., & Ni, Y. (2022). The impact of COVID-19 on turnover intention among hotel employees: A moderated mediation model. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 51, 539–549.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Ji, Y., Huang, P., & Ni, Y. (2023a). Fatigue or satisfaction at crowded attractions? Current Psychology, 42, 32588–32599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Ji, Y., & Ni, Y. (2023b). Does Nei Juan affect Tang ** for hotel employees? The moderating effect of effort-reward imbalance. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 109, 103421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Cheng, Y., & Ni, Y. (2024). Staging a comeback? The influencing mechanism of tourist crowding perception on adaptive behavior. Tourism Management, 100, 104827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo, C., Park, J., & MacInnis, D. J. (1998). Effects of store characteristics and in-store emotional experiences on store attitude. Journal of Business Research, 42(3), 253–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Prayag, G., & Song, H. (2021). Attribution theory and negative emotions in tourism experiences. Tourism Management Perspectives, 40, 100904.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S. N., Li, Y. Q., Ruan, W. Q., & Liu, C. H. (2022). Would you enjoy virtual travel? The characteristics and causes of virtual tourists’ sentiment under the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism Management, 88, 104429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, M., Gao, J., Zhang, L., & **, S. (2020). Exploring tourists’ stress and co** strategies in leisure travel. Tourism Management, 81, 104167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Jie Yin has really appreciated the financial support from Youth Project of National Social Science Foundation, China (20CGL022). Yensen Ni has really appreciated the financial support from National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan (NSTC 112-2410-H-032-047).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Exhibition Economy and Management, College of Tourism, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou, China

    Jie Yin

  2. College of Tourism, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou, China

    Xuejie Zheng

  3. Department of Management Sciences, Tamkang University, No.151, Yingzhuan Rd., Tamsui Dist, New Taipei City, 25137, Taiwan

    Yensen Ni

Authors
  1. Jie Yin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xuejie Zheng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yensen Ni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yensen Ni.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Yin, J., Zheng, X. & Ni, Y. Psychological effects of perceived crowding on time displacement behavior: mediating roles of perceived control loss and negative emotion, moderated by perceived waiting time. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06161-8

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06161-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation