Abstract
Soil erosion is a major issue in Loess Plateau, China, and quantitative analyses of sediment sources are crucial for soil erosion control. In this study, a combination of flood couplet analysis and composite fingerprint identification was used for historical reconstructions of soil erosion in sediment source areas in Loess Plateau. Each flood couplet was constructed based on sediment 137Cs activity, and past soil erosion was calculated using soil bulk density and storage capacity curves. The contribution rates of the sediment sources were calculated using the fingerprinting method, and the amount of erosion in the sediment source areas was estimated. The best fingerprint combination (Cr, Ni, V, and TOC) enabled a 97.2% recognition of sediment sources from 29 flood events (1956–1990) in the Loess Plateau. The contribution rates of gullies, farmland, grassland, and shrubland were 44.89%, 26.38%, 10.49%, and 18.24%, respectively. These four land use types contributed 1,227, 751, 512, and 279 tons of sediments, respectively. Re-vegetation decreased soil erosion (1966–1983), whereas deforestation increased soil erosion (1956–1965 and 1984–1990). Rational soil and water conservation measures on slopes and check dam construction in gullies are therefore suggested to mitigate erosion.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmady-Birgani H, Agahi E, Ahmadi SJ, et al. (2018) Sediment source fingerprinting of the Lake Urmia sand dunes. Sci Rep 8(1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18027-0
Bai L, Shi P, Yu K, et al. (2022) A new method to evaluate the accuracy of the sediment source mixing model. Ecol Indic 142: 109304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109304
Boudreault M, Koiter AJ, Lobb DA, et al. (2019) Comparison of sampling designs for sediment source fingerprinting in an agricultural watershed in Atlantic Canada. J Soils Sediments 19(9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02306-6
Cavalli M, Trevisani S, Comiti F, et al. (2013) Geomorphometric assessment of spatial sediment connectivity in small Alpine catchments. Geomorphology 188: 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.05.007
Chen L, Wei W, Fu B, et al. (2007) Soil and water conservation on the Loess Plateau in China: review and perspective. Prog Phys Geogr 31(4): 389–403. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133307081290
Chen F, Zhang F, Fang N, et al. (2016a) Sediment source analysis using the fingerprinting method in a small catchment of the Loess Plateau, China. J Soils Sediments 16(5): 1655–1669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-015-1336-7
Chen F, Fang N, Shi Z (2016b) Using biomarkers as fingerprint properties to identify sediment sources in a small catchment. Sci Total Environ 557: 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.028
Chen F, Wang X, Li X, et al. (2019) Using the sediment fingerprinting method to identify the sediment sources in small catchments with similar geological conditions. Agric Ecosyst Environ 286: 106655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106655
Cheng Y, Li P, Xu GC, et al. (2018) Effects of soil erosion and land use on spatial distribution of soil total phosphorus in a small watershed on the Loess Plateau, China. Soil Tillage Res 184: 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.07.011
Collins AL, Walling DE, Leeks GJL (1998) Use of composite fingerprints to determine the provenance of the contemporary suspended sediment load transported by rivers. Earth Surf Process Landf 23(1): 31–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9837(199801)23:1<31::aid-esp816>3.0.co;2-z
Collins AL, Zhang Y, Walling DE, et al. (2010) Tracing sediment loss from eroding farm tracks using a geochemical fingerprinting procedure combining local and genetic algorithm optimisation. Sci Total Environ 408(22): 5461–5471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.07.066
Evrard O, Durand R, Foucher A, et al. (2019) Using spectrocolourimetry to trace sediment source dynamics in coastal catchments draining the main Fukushima radioactive pollution plume (2011-2017). J Soils Sediments 19(9): 3290–3301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02302-w
Feng XM, Fu BJ, Piao SL, et al. (2016) Revegetation in China’s Loess Plateau is approaching sustainable water resource limits. Nat Clim Chang 6(11): 1019–1022. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3092
Fielding JJ, Croudace IW, Kemp AES, et al. (2020) Tracing lake pollution, eutrophication and partial recovery from the sediments of Windermere, UK, using geochemistry and sediment microfabrics. Sci Total Environ 722: 137745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137745
Gao J, Sang Y (2017) Identification and estimation of landslide-debris flow disaster risk in primary and middle school campuses in a mountainous area of Southwest China. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 25: 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.07.012
Gaspar L, Blake WH, Smith HG, et al. (2019) Testing the sensitivity of a multivariate mixing model using geochemical fingerprints with artificial mixtures. Geoderma 337: 498–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.10.005
Gholami V, Sahour H, Hadian AMA (2021) Soil erosion modeling using erosion pins and artificial neural networks. Catena 196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104902
Hu JF, Zhao GJ, Mu XM, et al. (2020) Effect of soil and water conservation measures on regime-based suspended sediment load during floods. Sustain Cities Soc 55: 102044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102044
Hu CH, Zhang XM (2020) Loess Plateau soil erosion governance and runoff-sediment variation of Yellow River. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering 51(01):1–11. (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.13928/j.cnki.wrahe.2020.01.001
IUSS Working Group, W. R. B (2006) World reference base for soil resources 2006. World Soil Resources Reports no. 103. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome.
** F, Yang W, Fu J, et al. (2021) Effects of vegetation and climate on the changes of soil erosion in the Loess Plateau of China. Sci Total Environ 773: 145514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145514
Jia X, Wang H, Wan H (2014) Sources and trace element geochemical characteristics of the coarse sediment in the Ningxia-Inner Mongolia reaches of the Yellow River. Geosci J 18(2): 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-013-0052-9
Jiao JY, Li J, Wang WZ (2002) Erosion environment in the sediment-rich area on the Loess Plateau. J Geogr Sci 12(1): 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02837427
Jiang C, Zhang HY, Wang XC, et al. (2019) Challenging the land degradation in China’s Loess Plateau: Benefits, limitations, sustainability, and adaptive strategies of soil and water conservation. Ecol Eng 127: 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.11.018
Koiter AJ, Owens PN, Petticrew EL, et al. (2013) The behavioural characteristics of sediment properties and their implications for sediment fingerprinting as an approach for identifying sediment sources in river basins. Earth Sci Rev 125: 24–42.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.05.009
Lance JC McIntyre SC, Naney JW, et al. (1986) Measuring sediment movement at low erosion rates using cesium - 137. Soil Sci Soc Am J 50(5): 1303–1309. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1986.03615995005000050044x
Li XG, Wei X, Wei N (2016) Correlating check dam sedimentation and rainstorm characteristics on the Loess Plateau, China. Geomorphology 265: 84–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.04.017
Lin Y, Yao SB (2014) Impact of the Slo** Land Conversion Program on rural household income: An integrated estimation. Land use policy 40: 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.09.005
Mandana A, Md AMS, Fauziah A (2012) Effectiveness of check dam to control soil erosion in a tropical catchment (The Ulu Kinta Basin). Catena 97: 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.05.003
Mekonnen M (2021) Impacts of soil and water conservation practices after half of a generation age, northwest highlands of Ethiopia. Soil Tillage Res 205: 104755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104755
Muñoz-Arcos E, Castillo A, Cuevas-Aedo A, et al. (2021) Sediment source apportionment following wildfire in an upland commercial forest catchment. J Soils Sediments 21(6): 2432–2449.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-021-02943-w
Nistor CJ, Church M (2005) Suspended sediment transport regime in a debris-flow gully on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Hydrological Processes: Hydrol Process 19(4): 861–885. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5549
Niu B, Qu J, Zhang XJ, et al. (2019) Quantifying provenance of reservoir sediment using multiple composite fingerprints in an arid region experiencing both wind and water erosion. Geomorphology 332: 112–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.02.011
Palazón L, Gaspar L, Latorre B, et al. (2015) Identifying sediment sources by applying a fingerprinting mixing model in a Pyrenean drainage catchment. J Soils Sediments 15(10): 2067–2085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-015-1175-6
Poesen JW, Hooke JM (1997) Erosion, flooding and channel management in Mediterranean environments of southern Europe. Prog Phys Geogr 21(2): 157–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/030913339702100201
Poesen J, Nachtergaele J, Verstraeten G, et al. (2003) Gully erosion and environmental change: importance and research needs. Catena 50(2–4): 91–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00143-1
Poesen J (2017) Soil erosion in the Anthropocene: Research needs. Earth Surf Process Landf 43(1): 64–84. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4250
Rutebuka J, Munyeshuli UA, Nkundwakazi O, et al. (2021) Effectiveness of terracing techniques for controlling soil erosion by water in Rwanda. J Environ Manage 277: 111369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111369
Shi P, Li P Li ZB, et al. (2022) Effects of grass vegetation coverage and position on runoff and sediment yields on the slope of Loess Plateau, China. Agric Water Manag 259: 107231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107231
Shi P, Li Z, Li P, et al. (2021) Trade-offs among ecosystem services after vegetation restoration in China’s loess plateau. Nat Resour Res 30: 2703–2713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-021-09841-5
Silva-Filho EV, Sanders CJ, Bernat M, et al. (2011) Origin of rare earth element anomalies in mangrove sediments, Sepetiba Bay, SE Brazil: used as geochemical tracers of sediment sources. Environ Earth Sci 64(5): 1257–1267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-0942-y
Slimane AB, Raclot D, Evrard O, et al. (2013) Fingerprinting sediment sources in the outlet reservoir of a hilly cultivated catchment in Tunisia. J Soils Sediments 13(4): 801–815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-012-0642-6
Tian P, An ZF, Zhao GJ, et al. (2019) Assessing sediment yield and sources using fingerprinting method in a representative catchment of the Loess Plateau, China. Environ Earth Sci 78(8): 261–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8240-1
Walling DE, Peart MR, Oldfield F, et al. (1979) Suspended sediment sources identified by magnetic measurements. Nature 281(5727): 110–113. https://doi.org/10.1038/281110a0
Walling DE (2005) Tracing suspended sediment sources in catchments and river systems. Sci Total Environ 344(1–3): 159–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.02.011
Wang Z, Chen Z, Yu S, et al. (2021) Erosion-control mechanism of sediment check dams on the Loess Plateau. Int J Sediment Res 36(5): 668–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2021.02.002
Wen X, Deng X (2020) Current soil erosion assessment in the Loess Plateau of China: A mini-review. J Clean Prod 276: 123091. https://doi.org/10.1016/jjclepro.2020.123091
Wen X, Zhen L (2020) Soil erosion control practices in the Chinese Loess Plateau: A systematic review. Environ Dev 34: 100493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2019.100493
**ao J, Lv G, Chai N, et al. (2022) Hydrochemistry and source apportionment of boron, sulfate, and nitrate in the Fen River, a typical loess covered area in the eastern Chinese Loess Plateau. Environ Res 206: 112570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112570
Xu G, Cheng S, Li P, et al. (2018) Soil total nitrogen sources on dammed farmland under the condition of ecological construction in a small watershed on the Loess Plateau, China. Ecol Eng 121: 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.09.005
Zhang J, Yang M, Zhang F, et al. (2017) Fingerprinting sediment sources after an extreme rainstorm event in a small catchment on the Loess Plateau, China. Land Degrad Dev 28(8): 2527–2539. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2803
Zhang Y, Zhang X, Bi Z, et al. (2020) The impact of land use changes and erosion process on heavy metal distribution in the hilly area of the Loess Plateau, China. Sci Total Environ 718: 137305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137305
Zhao T, Yang M, Walling DE, et al. (2017a) Using check dam deposits to investigate recent changes in sediment yield in the Loess Plateau, China. Global Planet Change 152: 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.03.003
Zhao G, Mu X, Han M, et al. (2017b) Sediment yield and sources in dam-controlled watersheds on the northern Loess Plateau. Catena 149: 110–119.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.09.010
Zhou H, Chang W, Zhang L (2016) Sediment sources in a small agricultural catchment: A composite fingerprinting approach based on the selection of potential sources. Geomorphology 266: 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.05.007
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Project of Creating Ordos National Sustainable Development Agenda Innovation Demonstration Zone (Grant 2022EEDSKJXM005), Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 42077073), Natural Science Basic Research Plan in Shaanxi Province of China (2022KJXX-62), the Project of Shaanxi Coal and Chemical Industry Group Co., Ltd (2022SMHKJ-A-J-07-02, 2022SMHKJ-B-J-54), the Project of AnHui Water Resources Development Co., Ltd (KY-2021-13).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bai, Ll., Shi, P., Wang, W. et al. Sediment sources and their impacts on a check dam-controlled watershed, Loess Plateau, China. J. Mt. Sci. 20, 1660–1673 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7888-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7888-2