Abstract
Urban green space is critical in the provision of environmental public goods and serves as a critical support for achieving sustainable development and fostering an ecological civilization society. Clarifying the association between environmental decentralization and the provision of urban green space holds the utmost importance in optimizing the environmental management system and enhancing the urban ecological environment. This paper employs a two-way fixed-effects model to empirically examine the influence of environmental decentralization—including various forms of environmental management function decentralization and multitiered government environmental decentralization—on the provision of urban green space. This analysis is grounded in panel data from Chinese cities spanning 2003 to 2019. The study finds a positive association between environmental decentralization and the provision of urban green space. Notably, this effect is particularly prominent in areas characterized by a high level of institutional quality. Intriguingly, regional disparities are observed, with environmental decentralization exerting a positive influence in eastern and central China, but yielding a negative impact in western China. From the multidimensional perspective of decentralization, environmental supervision decentralization and environmental monitoring decentralization demonstrate a significantly positive effect, while the influence of environmental administration decentralization is statistically insignificant. Moreover, the enhancement of environmental decentralization at the city and county levels emerges as a significant catalyst for the promotion of urban green space provision. This study offers valuable perspectives on harnessing environmental decentralization to augment urban green space. It proposes specific strategies for regions with distinct levels of institutional quality and economic development, emphasizing the significance of diverse forms of environmental decentralization in managing environmental matters.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source: Author-made based on environmental protection personnel data from China statistical yearbooks on environment
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Notes
As per Ma et al. (2022a), the year 2003 marked the commencement of a phase aimed at consolidating and fortifying local environmental institutions. Following 2003, there has been a notable improvement in the capacity and caliber of these local environmental protection organizations. The predominant focus during this period has been on the growth and standardization of these environmental protection bodies, with an emphasis on both augmenting the quantity and enhancing the quality of personnel. Special attention has been directed towards bolstering the enforcement and oversight capabilities of local environmental protection departments. Additionally, efforts were made to enhance environmental supervision standards, with revisions made in 2007, 2011, and 2014. These revisions were aimed at further standardizing the establishment of local environmental protection institutions and elevating the skillset of personnel. The evolution of environmental protection institutions is intricately linked to the process of environmental decentralization. Therefore, the selected sample period in this article, spanning from 2003 to 2019, effectively reflects the consolidation and strengthening of local environmental institutions (Feng et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2022a; Han et al., 2023).
Please refer to Table 7 (Appendix), for the regression results grouped by the level of institutional environment.
In the subsequent discussion regarding environmental management function and multilevel government, the regression results of excluding samples after the environmental agency reform are presented in Table 9 (Appendix).
In the discussion regarding environmental management function and multilevel government, the regression results grouped by the level of institutional environment are presented in Table 8 (Appendix).
References
Arora, P., & Chong, A. (2018). Government effectiveness in the provision of public goods: The role of institutional quality. Journal of Applied Economics, 21(1), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/15140326.2018.1550593
Awan, U., Braathen, P., & Hannola, L. (2023). When and how the implementation of green human resource management and data-driven culture to improve the firm sustainable environmental development? Sustainable Development, 31(4), 2726–2740. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2543
Barankay, I., & Lockwood, B. (2007). Decentralization and the productive efficiency of government: Evidence from Swiss cantons. Journal of Public Economics, 91(5–6), 1197–1218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2006.11.006
Bednar, J. (2011). The political science of federalism. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 7, 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102510-105522
Besley, T., & Coate, S. (2003). Centralized versus decentralized provision of local public goods: A political economy approach. Journal of Public Economics, 87(12), 2611–2637. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(02)00141-X
Biernacka, M., & Kronenberg, J. (2018). Classification of institutional barriers affecting the availability, accessibility and attractiveness of urban green spaces. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 36, 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.09.007
Bowler, D. E., Buyung-Ali, L., Knight, T. M., & Pullin, A. S. (2010). Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landscape and Urban Planning, 97(3), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.05.006
Cai, H. B., & Treisman, D. (2005). Does competition for capital discipline governments? Decentralization, globalization, and public policy. American Economic Review, 95(3), 817–830. https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828054201314
Chang, H. F., Sigman, H., & Traub, L. G. (2014). Endogenous decentralization in federal environmental policies. International Review of Law and Economics, 37, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2013.07.001
Changwony, F. K., & Paterson, A. S. (2019). Accounting practice, fiscal decentralization and corruption. British Accounting Review, 51(5), 100834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bar.2019.04.003
Chen, W. Y., & Hu, F. (2015). Producing nature for public: Land-based urbanization and provision of public green spaces in China. Applied Geography, 58, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.01.007
Chen, W. Y., & Wang, D. T. (2013). Urban forest development in China: Natural endowment or socioeconomic product? Cities, 35, 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2013.06.011
Choumert, J. (2010). An empirical investigation of public choices for green spaces. Land Use Policy, 27(4), 1123–1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2010.03.001
D’Amato, A., & Valentini, E. (2011). Enforcement and environmental quality in a decentralized emission trading system. Journal of Regulatory Economics, 40(2), 141–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11149-011-9153-4
Ekkel, E. D., & de Vries, S. (2017). Nearby green space and human health: Evaluating accessibility metrics. Landscape and Urban Planning, 157, 214–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.06.008
Faheem, M., Hussain, S., Tanveer, A., Safdar, N., & Anwer, M. A. (2022). Does foreign direct investment asymmetrically affect the mitigation of environmental degradation in Malaysia? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(5), 7393–7405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16231-0
Feng, S. L., Sui, B., Liu, H. M., & Li, G. X. (2020). Environmental decentralization and innovation in China. Economic Modelling, 93, 660–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2020.02.048
Fu, Y. (2010). Fiscal decentralization, governance and non-economic public goods provision (in Chinese). Economic Research Journal., 45(08), 4–15.
Fuller, R. A., & Gaston, K. J. (2009). The scaling of green space coverage in European cities. Biology Letters, 5(3), 352–355. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0010
Global Ecosystem and Environment Observation Analysis Research Cooperation Report. (2020). Global urban land composite and expansion in 2000–2020. Ministry of Science and Technology, China.
Goel, R. K., Mazhar, U., Nelson, M. A., & Ram, R. (2017). Different forms of decentralization and their impact on government performance: Micro-level evidence from 113 countries. Economic Modelling, 62, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.12.010
Grisorio, M. J., & Prota, F. (2015). The impact of fiscal decentralization on the composition of public expenditure: Panel data evidence from Italy. Regional Studies, 49(12), 1941–1956. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.859665
Grossman, G., Pierskalla, J. H., & Dean, E. B. (2017). Government fragmentation and public goods provision. Journal of Politics, 79(3), 823–840. https://doi.org/10.1086/690305
Han, L. D., Wu, X., & Tang, P. (2023). Does environmental decentralization affect the supply of urban construction land? Evidence from China. Land, 12(3), 601. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12030601
Hao, Y., Xu, L., Guo, Y. X., & Wu, H. T. (2022). The inducing factors of environmental emergencies: Do environmental decentralization and regional corruption matter? Journal of Environmental Management, 302, 114098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114098
Huang, Y. Y., Lin, T., Xue, X. Z., Zhang, G. Q., Liu, Y. Q., Zeng, Z. W., et al. (2021). Spatial patterns and inequity of urban green space supply in China. Ecological Indicators, 132, 108275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108275
Iqbal, N., Abbasi, K. R., Shinwari, R., Wan, G. C., Ahmad, M., & Tang, K. (2021). Does exports diversification and environmental innovation achieve carbon neutrality target of OECD economies? Journal of Environmental Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112648
James, P., Tzoulas, K., Adams, M. D., Barber, A., Box, J., Breuste, J., et al. (2009). Towards an integrated understanding of green space in the European built environment. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 8(2), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2009.02.001
Jim, C. Y., & Chen, W. Y. (2008). Assessing the ecosystem service of air pollutant removal by urban trees in Guangzhou (China). Journal of Environmental Management, 88(4), 665–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.03.035
Jorgenson, A. K. (2009). Foreign direct investment and the environment, the mitigating influence of institutional and civil society factors, and relationships between industrial pollution and human health a panel study of less-developed countries. Organization & Environment, 22(2), 135–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026609338163
Kabisch, N., & Haase, D. (2014). Green justice or just green? Provision of urban green spaces in Berlin, Germany. Landscape and Urban Planning, 122, 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.11.016
Kalb, A. (2014). What determines local governments’ cost-efficiency? The case of road maintenance. Regional Studies, 48(9), 1483–1498. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2012.731044
Karakas, L. D. (2017). Institutional constraints and the inefficiency in public investments. Journal of Public Economics, 152, 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2017.06.007
Karp, L., & Rezai, A. (2014). The political economy of environmental policy with overlap** generations. International Economic Review, 55(3), 711–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/iere.12068
Karlan, D., & List, J. A. (2020). How can Bill and Melinda Gates increase other people's donations to fund public goods? Journal of Public Economics, 191, 104296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104296
Kautish, P., Sharma, R., Mangla, S. K., Jabeen, F., & Awan, U. (2021). Understanding choice behavior towards plastic consumption: An emerging market investigation. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 174, 105828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105828
Kerkhof, A., Drissen, E., Uiterkamp, A. S., & Moll, H. (2010). Valuation of environmental public goods and services at different spatial scales: A review. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 7(2), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438151003709832
Kong, F., Sun, C. F., Liu, F. F., Yin, H. W., Jiang, F., Pu, Y. X., et al. (2016). Energy saving potential of fragmented green spaces due to their temperature regulating ecosystem services in the summer. Applied Energy, 183, 1428–1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.09.070
Konisky, D. M. (2008). Regulator attitudes and the environmental race to the bottom argument. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 18(2), 321–344. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mum018
Kustov, A., & Pardelli, G. (2018). Ethnoracial homogeneity and public outcomes: The (Non)effects of diversity. American Political Science Review, 112(4), 1096–1103. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000308
Li, B., Li, T., Yu, M., & Chen, M. (2017). Can equalization of public services narrow the regional disparities in China? A spatial econometrics approach. China Economic Review, 44, 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2017.03.010
Li, B. X., & Wang, H. (2023). Comprehensive evaluation of urban high-quality development: A case study of Liaoning Province. Environment Development and Sustainability, 25(2), 1809–1831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02129-5
Lin, B. Q., & Xu, C. C. (2022). Does environmental decentralization aggravate pollution emissions? Microscopic evidence from Chinese industrial enterprises. Science of the Total Environment, 829, 154640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154640
Lo, K. (2015). How authoritarian is the environmental governance of China? Environmental Science & Policy, 54, 152–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.06.001
Long, W. B., Luo, L., Sun, H. F., & Zhong, Q. Q. (2023). Does going abroad lead to going green? Firm outward foreign direct investment and domestic environmental performance. Business Strategy and the Environment, 32(1), 484–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.3156
Ma, B., Hu, T. K., & Zhao, K. (2022a). Environmental decentralization and institutional change of local governments in China: measurement of multi-level decentralization and assessment of pollution abatement effect (In Chinese). Management Review, 34(05), 304–317. https://doi.org/10.14120/j.cnki.cn11-5057/f.2022.05.023
Ma, B., Zhou, T. T., Lei, S., Wen, Y. L., & Htun, T. T. (2019). Effects of urban green spaces on residents’ well-being. Environment Development and Sustainability, 21(6), 2793–2809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0161-8
Ma, H. M., Di, D. Y., Li, L., Zhang, W., & Wang, J. M. (2022b). Environmental decentralization, environmental public service, and public health: Evidence from 289 cities in China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 44(9), 2905–2918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01112-9
Mbanyele, W., & Wang, F. R. (2022). Environmental regulation and technological innovation: Evidence from China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(9), 12890–12910. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14975-3
Millimet, D. L. (2003). Assessing the empirical impact of environmental federalism. Journal of Regional Science, 43(4), 711–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4146.2003.00317.x
Oates, W. E. (2002). A reconsideration of environmental federalism. In J. A. List, & A. DeZeeuw (Eds.), New Horizons in Environmental Economics (pp. 1–32).
Oates, W. E., & Schwab, R. M. (1988). Economic competition among jurisdictions - efficiency enhancing or distortion inducing. Journal of Public Economics, 35(3), 333–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2727(88)90036-9
Pu, Z. N., & Fu, J. S. (2018). Economic growth, environmental sustainability and China mayors’ promotion. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 454–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.162
Qi, Y., Lu, H. Y., & Xu, Y. K. (2014). Research on reformation of China’s environmental decentralization system: institutional change, numerical estimates and effects assessment (in Chinese). China Industrial Economics, 310(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.19581/j.cnki.ciejournal.2014.01.003
Qian, Y. Y., & Roland, G. (1998). Federalism and the soft budget constraint. American Economic Review, 88(5), 1143–1162.
Ran, Q. Y., Zhang, J. N., & Hao, Y. (2020). Does environmental decentralization exacerbate China’s carbon emissions? Evidence based on dynamic threshold effect analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 721, 137656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137656
Ren, S., Du, M., Bu, W., & Lin, T. (2023). Assessing the impact of economic growth target constraints on environmental pollution: Does environmental decentralization matter? Journal of Environmental Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117618
Riksson, P., & Wang, L. (2020). The politics of environmental enforcement: The case of the resource and conservation recovery act. Empirical Economics, 58(6), 2593–2613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-019-01654-z
Roodsari, E. N., & Hoseini, P. (2022). An assessment of the correlation between urban green space supply and socio-economic disparities of Tehran districts-Iran. Environment Development and Sustainability, 24(11), 12867–12882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01970-4
Shi, W. L., Sun, S. L., Yan, D. Y., & Zhu, Z. (2017). Institutional fragility and outward foreign direct investment from China. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(4), 452–476. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-016-0050-z
Sigman, H. (2005). Transboundary spillovers and decentralization of environmental policies. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 50(1), 82–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2004.10.001
De Siano, R., & D'uva, M. (2017). Fiscal decentralization and spillover effects of local government public spending: The case of Italy. Regional Studies, 51(10), 1507–1517. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2016.1208814
Sjoberg, E. (2016). An empirical study of federal law versus local environmental enforcement. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 76, 14–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2015.11.007
Sjöberg, E., & Xu, J. (2018). An empirical study of US environmental federalism: RCRA enforcement From 1998 to 2011. Ecological Economics, 147, 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.01.024
Smith, J. F. (1998). Does decentralization matter in environmental management? Environmental Management, 22(2), 263–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002679900102
Tang, P. C., Zeng, H., & Fu, S. K. (2019). Local government responses to catalyse sustainable development: Learning from low-carbon pilot programme in China. Science of the Total Environment, 689, 1054–1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.375
Tang, Y., & Mao, Y. J. (2023). Does limited decentralization of environmental enforcement power improve air quality? Quasi-experimental evidence from China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 412, 137358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137358
Tanveer, A., Song, H. M., Faheem, M., & Chaudhry, I. S. (2022). Validation of environmental Philips curve in Pakistan: A fresh insight through ARDL technique. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(17), 25060–25077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17099-w
Tanveer, A., Song, H. M., Faheem, M., & Daud, A. (2023). The paradigms of transport energy consumption and technological innovation as a panacea for sustainable environment: Is there any asymmetric association? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(8), 20469–20489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23453-3
Tanveer, A., Song, H. M., Faheem, M., Daud, A., & Naseer, S. (2021). Unveiling the asymmetric impact of energy consumption on environmental mitigation in the manufacturing sector of Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(45), 64586–64605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14955-7
Tiebout, C. M. (2006). A pure theory of local expenditures. In W. A. Fischel (Eds.), Tiebout Model at Fifty: Essays in Public Economics in Honor of Wallace Oates (pp. XI-XXI).
UN General Assembly. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations.
van den Berg, M., Wendel-Vos, W., van Poppel, M., Kemper, H., van Mechelen, W., & Maas, J. (2015). Health benefits of green spaces in the living environment: A systematic review of epidemiological studies. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 14(4), 806–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.07.008
Van Herzele, A., & Wiedemann, T. (2003). A monitoring tool for the provision of accessible and attractive urban green spaces. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(2), 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00192-5
Wang, H. S., Yang, G. Q., Ouyang, X., & Tan, Z. Y. (2022). Does environmental information disclosure promote the supply of environmental public goods? Evidence based on a dynamic spatial panel Durbin model. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 93, 106725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2021.106725
Wang, J. C., Yang, L., & Yang, J. C. (2023). How sustainable environment is influenced by the foreign direct investment, financial development, economic growth, globalization, innovation, and urbanization in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(17), 49889–49904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25634-0
Wang, X. L., Hu, L. P., & Fan, G. (2021). Marketization Index of China’s provinces: NERI report 2021 (in Chinese). Economic Science Press.
Wu, H. T., Hao, Y., & Ren, S. Y. (2020a). How do environmental regulation and environmental decentralization affect green total factor energy efficiency: Evidence from China. Energy Economics, 91, 104880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.104880
Wu, H. T., Li, Y. W., Hao, Y., Ren, S. Y., & Zhang, P. F. (2020b). Environmental decentralization, local government competition, and regional green development: Evidence from China. Science of the Total Environment, 708, 135085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135085
Wu, Y., & Heerink, N. (2016). Foreign direct investment, fiscal decentralization and land conflicts in China. China Economic Review, 38, 92–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2015.11.014
Xu, H. Z., & Li, X. Y. (2023). Effect mechanism of Chinese-style decentralization on regional carbon emissions and policy improvement: Evidence from China’s 12 urban agglomerations. Environment Development and Sustainability, 25(1), 474–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02063-y
Yan, C. R., Di, D. Y., Li, G. X., & Wang, J. M. (2022). Environmental regulation and the supply efficiency of environmental public services: Evidence from environmental decentralization of 289 cities in China. Growth and Change, 53(2), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12596
Yasmeen, R., Yao, X., Padda, I. U., Shah, W. U., & Jie, W. C. (2022). Exploring the role of solar energy and foreign direct investment for clean environment: Evidence from top 10 solar energy consuming countries. Renewable Energy, 185, 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.048
Yuan, S., Pan, X. F., & Li, M. N. (2022). The nonlinear influence of innovation efficiency on carbon and haze co-control: The threshold effect of environmental decentralization. Environment Development and Sustainability, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02664-1
Zhang, J., Gao, Y., Fu, Y., & Zhang, H. (2007). Why does China enjoy so much better physical infrastructure (in Chinese). Economic Research Journal, 42(3), 4–19.
Zhang, W., & Li, G. (2022). Environmental decentralization, environmental protection investment, and green technology innovation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(9), 12740–12755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09849-z
Zhao, Z. H., Pan, J. T., & Lei, P. (2021). Real curve: Identifying and quantifying the real environmental effects on migration in China. Ecological Indicators, 133, 108348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108348
Zhu, Z. P., Li, J. Y., & Chen, Z. R. (2023). Green space equity: Spatial distribution of urban green spaces and correlation with urbanization in **amen, China. Environment Development and Sustainability, 25(1), 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02061-0
Funding
This research was funded by the Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Award number: 22YJC790120; National Social Science Fund Major Special Project, Award Number: 22VMG016; Bei**g Social Science Foundation, Award Number: 20GLC050.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
This manuscript complies to the Ethical Rules applicable for this journal. Authors are responsible for correctness of the statements provided in the manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
See Tables
6,
7,
8,
9 and Fig.
Source: Author-made based on UGS data from China statistical yearbooks on environment
Province-wise UGS in 2019.
5.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, D., Liang, Y. Environmental decentralization and urban green space provision: based on the multidimensional perspective of decentralization. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-04393-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-04393-5