Abstract
Based on the observed strong-motion records of K-NET and KiK-net, we utilized 1,065 earthquake observation stations installed throughout Japan, gathering more than 140,000 recordings for weak motions with a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of less than 100 cm/s2 and more than 5,300 records for strong motions with a PGA of more than 100 cm/s2. These 1,065 sites detected at least one recording with a PGA value greater than 100 cm/s2. These recordings were used to quantify the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) difference between weak and strong shakings. Based on the observations, the discrepancy in HVSR between weak and strong shakings can be depicted as a shift both in the frequency and amplitude axes in the logarithmic coordinate system. This kind of shift can be favorably interpreted by an established diffused field theory of the HVSR of earthquakes. Based on the concept of shifts, new empirical functions are proposed to modify the averaged HVSR in linear cases in order to acquire the HVSR in nonlinear regimes. Subsequently, an improved vertical amplification correction function, which considers the time-averaged shear wave velocity down to 30 m, was used to convert the modified HVSR into the horizontal site amplification factor (HSAF) in nonlinear regimes. The new methodology adopted in this study, which does not require detailed soil layer information, is convenient for obtaining the HSAF by considering empirically obtained nonlinear soil behaviors.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The VACFVS30 adopted in the current study is available in the figshare repository (https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.20304702.v1). Other datasets generated during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Aguirre J, Irikura K (1997) Nonlinearity, liquefaction, and velocity variation of soft soil layers in Port Island, Kobe, during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 87:1244–1258. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0870051244
Aki K, Richards PG (2002) Quantitative seismology. University Science Books, California
Aoi S, Asano Y, Kunugi T, Kimura T, Uehira K, Takahashi N, Ueda H, Shiomi K, Matsumoto T, Fujiwara H (2020) MOWLAS: NIED observation network for earthquake, tsunami and volcano. Earth Planets Space 72:126. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-020-01250-x
Beresnev IA, Wen KL (1996) Nonlinear soil response—a reality? Bull Seismol Soc Am 86:1964–1978. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0860061964
Bonilla LF, Tsuda K, Pulido N, Regnier J, Laurendeau A (2011) Nonlinear site response evidence of K-NET and KiK-net records from the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake. Earth Planets Space 63:785–789. https://doi.org/10.5047/eps.2011.06.012
Borcherdt RD (1970) Effects of local geology on ground motion near San Francisco Bay. Bull Seismol Soc Am 60:29–61. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0600010029
BSSC (2003) NEHRP recommended provisions for seismic regulations for new buildings and other structures, part1: provisions. FEMA 368, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
Claerbout JF (1968) Synthesis of a layered medium from its acoustic transmission response. Geophysics 33:264–269. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.1439927
Dhakal YP, Aoi S, Kunugi T, Suzuki W, Kimura T (2017) Assessment of nonlinear site response at ocean bottom seismograph sites based on S-wave horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios: a study at the Sagami Bay area K-NET sites in Japan. Earth Planets Space 69:29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-017-0615-5
Dimitriu P, Kalogeras I, Theodulidis N (1999) Evidence of nonlinear site response in HVSR from near-field earthquakes. Soil Dyn Earthq Engng 18:423–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(99)00014-7
Dimitriu P, Theodulidis N, Bard PY (2000) Evidence of nonlinear site response in SMART1 (Taiwan) data. Soil Dyn Earthq Engng 20:155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(00)00047-6
Dimitriu PP (2002) The HVSR technique reveals pervasive nonlinear sediment response during the 1994 Northridge earthquake (MW 6.7). J Seismolog 6:247–255. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015640218516
Field EH, Jacob KH (1995) A comparison and test of various site-response estimation techniques, including three that are not reference-site dependent. Bull Seismol Soc Am 85:1127–1143. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0850041127
Field EH, Johnson PA, Beresnev IA, Zeng Y (1997) Nonlinear ground motion amplification by sediments during the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Nature 390:599–602. https://doi.org/10.1038/37586
Hardin BO, Drnevich VP (1972) Shear modulus and dam** in soils: measurement and parameter effects. J Soil Mech Found Div 98:603–624. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0001756
Ito E, Nakano K, Nagashima F, Kawase H (2020) A method to directly estimate S-wave site amplification factor from horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio of earthquakes (eHVSRs). Bull Seismol Soc Am 110:2892–2911. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120190315
Katsumata A (1996) Comparison of magnitudes estimated by the Japan Meteorological Agency with moment magnitudes for intermediate and deep earthquakes. Bull Seismol Soc Am 86:832–842. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0860030832
Kawase H, Nagashima F, Nakano K, Mori Y (2018) Direct evaluation of S-wave amplification factors from microtremor H/V ratios: Double empirical corrections to “Nakamura” method. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 126:105067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.01.049
Kawase H, Sanchez-Sesma FJ, Matsushima S (2011) The optimal use of horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios of earthquake motions for velocity inversions based on diffuse-field theory for plane waves. Bull Seismol Soc Am 101:2001–2014. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120100263
Kitagawa Y, Ohkawa I, Kashima T (1988) Dense strong motion earthquake seismometer array at site with different topographic and geologic conditions in Sendai. Proc WCEE 2:215–220
Lermo J, Chavez-Garcia FJ (1993) Site effect evaluation using spectral ratios with only one station. Bull Seismol Soc Am 83:1574–1594. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0830051574
Midorikawa S (1993) Nonlinearity of site amplification during strong ground shaking. Zishin 46:207–216 (in Japanese with English abstract)
Mohammadioun B, Pecker A (1984) Low-frequency transfer of seismic energy by superficial soil deposits and soft rocks. Earthq Eng Struct Dynam 12:537–564. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290120409
Nakamura Y (1988) A method for dynamic characteristics of estimation of subsurface using microtremor on the ground. Quart Rep RTEI 30:25–33
Noguchi S, Sasatani T (2011) Nonlinear soil response and its effects on strong ground motions during the 2003 Miyagi-Oki intraslab earthquakes. Zishin 63:165–187 (in Japanese with English abstract)
Noguchi S, Sasatani T (2008) Quantification of degree of nonlinear site response. In: 14th world conference on earthquake engineering, Bei**g, paper ID: 03-03-0049
Panzera F, Halldorsson B, Vogfjörð K (2017) Directional effects of tectonic fractures on ground motion site amplification from earthquake and ambient noise data: a case study in South Iceland. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 97:143–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.01.049
Regnier J, Cadet H, Bonilla LF, Bertrand E, Semblat JF (2013) Assessing nonlinear behavior of soils in seismic site response: statistical analysis on KiK-net strong-motion data. Bull Seismol Soc Am 103:1750–1770. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120120240
Ren Y, Wen R, Yao X, Ji K (2017) Five parameters for the evaluation of the soil nonlinearity during the Ms8.0 wenchuan earthquake using the HVSR method. Earth Planets Space 69:116. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-017-0702-7
Rubinstein JL (2011) Nonlinear site response in medium magnitude earthquakes near Parkfield, California. Bull Seismol Soc Am 101:275–286. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120090396
Sanchez-Sesma FJ, Perez-Ruiz JA, Luzon F, Campillo M, Rodriguez-Castellanos A (2008) Diffuse fields in dynamic elasticity. Wave Motion 45:641–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wavemoti.2007.07.005
Satoh H, Kawase H, Matsushima S (2001) Differences between site characteristics obtained from microtremors, S-waves, P-waves, and codas. Bull Seismol Soc Am 91:313–334. https://doi.org/10.1785/0119990149
Tsuruoka H (1998) Development of earthquake information retrieval and analysis system on WWW. IPSJ SIG Tech Rep 49:65–70 (in Japanese with English abstract)
Ueno H, Hatakeyama S, Aketagawa T, Funasaki J, Hamada N (2002) Improvement of hypocenter determination procedures in the Japan Meteorological Agency. Kenshin-Jiho 65:123–134 (in Japanese with English abstract)
Wang Z, Nagashima F, Kawase H (2021) A new empirical method for obtaining horizontal site amplification factors with soil nonlinearity. Earthq Engng Struct Dyn 50:2774–2794. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3471
Weaver RL (1982) On diffuse waves in soil media. J Acoust Soc Am 71:1608–1609. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.387816
Wen KL, Chang TM, Lin CM, Chiang HJ (2006) Identification of nonlinear site response using the H/V spectral ratio method. Terrest Atmos Ocean Sci 17:533
Wu C, Peng Z, Ben-Zion Y (2010) Refined thresholds for non-linear ground motion and temporal changes of site response associated with medium-size earthquakes. Geophys J Int 182:1567–1576. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04704.x
Zhou Y, Wang H, Wen R, Ren Y, Ji K (2020) Insights on nonlinear soil behavior and its variation with time at strong-motion stations during the Mw7.8 Kaikoura, New Zealand earthquake. Soil Dyn Earthq Engng 136:106215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106215
Funding
This study was partly supported by the scholarship from China Scholarship Council, the research fund from Hanshin Consultants Co., Ltd, and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Kakenhi Grant-in-Aid for Basic Research (B) Number 19H02405.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
KH and WZ contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, coding, data collection, and analysis were performed by WZ. The first draft of this manuscript was written by WZ; IE and SJ provided constructive comments for Sect. 4 and 5.2, respectively. MS inspected the manuscript fully, providing some useful comments. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
Intellectual property
We confirm that we have given due consideration to the protection of intellectual property associated with this work and that there are no impediments to publication, including the timing of publication, with respect to intellectual property. In so doing we confirm that we have followed the regulations of our institutions concerning intellectual property.
Research ethics
We confirm that this work does not have any conflict with social ethics. All research data of this study have been approved by relevant departments.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Z., Sun, J., Ito, E. et al. Empirical method for deriving horizontal site amplification factors considering nonlinear soil behaviors based on K-NET and KiK-net records throughout Japan. Bull Earthquake Eng 21, 4191–4216 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-023-01712-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-023-01712-z