SpringerLink
Log in

Imaging and Radiological Assessment of the Inferior Vena Cava

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Surgery of the Inferior Vena Cava

Abstract

The inferior vena cava (IVC) is the main vein of the human body, formed by the confluence of the left and right common iliac veins. It ascends in the retroperitoneum to the right of the aorta and exits the abdomen through the diaphragmatic hiatus to join the right atrium. It drains the left and right renal veins, the lumbar veins, the right adrenal vein, the right gonadal vein, and the hepatic veins. The azygos venous system connects to the IVC (directly or through the renal veins). The IVC has four segments: the hepatic, suprarenal, renal, and infrarenal segments [1].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
EUR 29.95
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
EUR 74.89
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
EUR 93.59
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
EUR 103.99
Price includes VAT (Spain)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Bass JE, Redwine MD, Kramer LA, Huynh PT, Harris JH Jr (2000) Spectrum of congenital anomalies of the inferior vena cava: cross-sectional imaging findings. Radiographics 20:639–652

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Philips E (1969) Embryology, normal anatomy, and anomalies. In: Ferris EJ, Hipona FA, Kahn PC, Philips E, Shapiro JH (eds) Venography of the inferior vena cava and its branches. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 1–32

    Google Scholar 

  3. Smillie RP, Shetty M, Boyer AC, Madrazo B, Jafri SZ (2015) Imaging evaluation of the inferior vena cava. Radiographics 35:578–592

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Sheth S, Fishman EK (2007) Imaging of the inferior vena cava with MDCT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 189:1243–1251

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kandpal H, Sharma R, Gamangatti S, Srivastava DN, Vashisht S (2008) Imaging the inferior vena cava: a road less traveled. Radiographics 28:669–689

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Finn JP, Longmaid HE (1992) Abdominal magnetic resonance venography. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 15:51–59

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Miyazaki T, Yamashita Y, Shinzato J, Kojima A, Takahashi M (1995) Two-dimensional time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography in the coronal plane for abdominal disease: its usefulness and comparison with conventional angiography. Br J Radiol 68:351–357

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Miceli M, Atoui R, Walker R, Mahfouz T, Mirza N, Diaz J et al (2004) Diagnosis of deep septic thrombophlebitis in cancer patients by fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scanning: a preliminary report. J Clin Oncol 22:1949–1956

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Sharma P, Kumar R, Jeph S, Karunanithi S, Naswa N, Gupta A et al (2011) 18F-FDG PET-CT in the diagnosis of tumor thrombus: can it be differentiated from benign thrombus? Nucl Med Commun 32:782–788

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Sharma P, Kumar R, Singh H, Jeph S, Patnecha M, Reddy RM et al (2012) Imaging thrombus in cancer patients with FDG PET-CT. Jpn J Radiol 30:95–104

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kaufman LB, Yeh BM, Breiman RS, Joe BN, Qayyum A, Coakley FV (2005) Inferior vena cava filling defects on CT and MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol 185:717–726

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Zhang L, Yang G, Shen W, Qi J (2007) Spectrum of the inferior vena cava: MDCT findings. Abdom Imaging 32:495–503

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Soler R, Rodriguez E, Lopez MF, Marini M (1995) MR imaging in inferior vena cava thrombosis. Eur J Radiol 19:101–107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Game X, Soulie M, Moussouni S, Roux D, Escourrou G, Chevreau C et al (2003) Renal angiomyolipoma associated with rapid enlargement [correction of enlargement] and inferior vena caval tumor thrombus. J Urol 170:918–919

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Lau TN, Goddard P, Vaidya M, Calloway M, Bullimore J (1997) Involvement of the inferior vena cava by adrenal phaeochromocytoma: MRI findings. Br J Radiol 70:303–305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Blum U, Wildanger G, Windfuhr M, Laubenberger J, Freudenberg N, Munzar T (1995) Preoperative CT and MR imaging of inferior vena cava leiomyosarcoma. Eur J Radiol 20:23–27

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Hardwigsen J, Balandraud P, Ananian P, Saisse J, Le Treut YP (2005) Leiomyosarcoma of the retrohepatic portion of the inferior vena cava: clinical presentation and surgical management in five patients. J Am Coll Surg 200:57–63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Webb EM, Wang ZJ, Westphalen AC, Nakakura EK, Coakley FV, Yeh BM (2013) Can CT features differentiate between inferior vena cava leiomyosarcomas and primary retroperitoneal masses? AJR Am J Roentgenol 200:205–209

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Cuevas C, Raske M, Bush WH, Takayama T, Maki JH, Kolokythas O et al (2006) Imaging primary and secondary tumor thrombus of the inferior vena cava: multi-detector computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol 35:90–101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Karnes RJ, Blute ML (2008) Surgery insight: management of renal cell carcinoma with associated inferior vena cava thrombus. Nat Clin Pract Urol 5:329–339

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Calero A, Armstrong PA (2013) Renal cell carcinoma accompanied by venous invasion and inferior vena cava thrombus: classification and operative strategies for the vascular surgeon. Semin Vasc Surg 26:219–225

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Lawindy SM, Kurian T, Kim T, Mangar D, Armstrong PA, Alsina AE et al (2012) Important surgical considerations in the management of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) with inferior vena cava (IVC) tumour thrombus. BJU Int 110:926–939

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Neves RJ, Zincke H (1987) Surgical treatment of renal cancer with vena cava extension. Br J Urol 59:390–395

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Woodruff DY, Van Veldhuizen P, Muehlebach G, Johnson P, Williamson T, Holzbeierlein JM (2013) The perioperative management of an inferior vena caval tumor thrombus in patients with renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol 31:517–521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Lawrentschuk N, Gani J, Riordan R, Esler S, Bolton DM (2005) Multidetector computed tomography vs magnetic resonance imaging for defining the upper limit of tumour thrombus in renal cell carcinoma: a study and review. BJU Int 96:291–295

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Psutka SP, Boorjian SA, Thompson RH, Schmit GD, Schmitz JJ, Bower TC et al (2014) Clinical and radiographic predictors of the need for inferior vena cava resection during nephrectomy for patients with renal cell carcinoma and caval tumour thrombus. BJU Int 2015;40(6):1500–1509

    Google Scholar 

  27. Missal ME, Robinson JA, Tatum RW (1965) Inferior vena cava obstruction: clinical manifestations, diagnostic methods, and related problems. Ann Intern Med 62:133–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Sonin AH, Mazer MJ, Powers TA (1992) Obstruction of the inferior vena cava: a multiple-modality demonstration of causes, manifestations, and collateral pathways. Radiographics 12:309–322

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Janssen HL, Garcia-Pagan JC, Elias E, Mentha G, Hadengue A, Valla DC et al (2003) Budd-Chiari syndrome: a review by an expert panel. J Hepatol 38:364–371

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Valla DC (2003) The diagnosis and management of the Budd-Chiari syndrome: consensus and controversies. Hepatology 38:793–803

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Faraoun SA, Boudjella ME, Debzi N, Afredj N, Guerrache Y, Benidir N et al (2015) Budd-Chiari syndrome: a prospective analysis of hepatic vein obstruction on ultrasonography, multidetector-row computed tomography and MR imaging. Abdom Imaging 40(6):1500–1509

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Bolondi L, Gaiani S, Li Bassi S, Zironi G, Bonino F, Brunetto M et al (1991) Diagnosis of Budd-Chiari syndrome by pulsed Doppler ultrasound. Gastroenterology 100:1324–1331

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Copelan A, Remer EM, Sands M, Nghiem H, Kapoor B (2015) Diagnosis and management of Budd Chiari syndrome: an update. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 38:1–12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Brancatelli G, Federle MP, Grazioli L, Golfieri R, Lencioni R (2002) Benign regenerative nodules in Budd-Chiari syndrome and other vascular disorders of the liver: radiologic-pathologic and clinical correlation. Radiographics 22:847–862

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Perello A, Garcia-Pagan JC, Gilabert R, Suarez Y, Moitinho E, Cervantes F et al (2002) TIPS is a useful long-term derivative therapy for patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome uncontrolled by medical therapy. Hepatology 35:132–139

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Srivastava A, Singh KJ, Suri A, Vijjan V, Dubey D (2005) Inferior vena cava in urology: importance of developmental abnormalities in clinical practice. ScientificWorldJournal 5:558–563

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Ginaldi S, Chuang VP, Wallace S (1980) Absence of hepatic segment of the inferior vena cava with azygous continuation. J Comput Assist Tomogr 4:112–114

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Haswell DM, Berrigan TJ Jr (1976) Anomalous inferior vena cava with accessory hemiazygos continuation. Radiology 119:51–54

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Piciucchi S, Barone D, Sanna S, Dubini A, Goodman LR, Oboldi D et al (2014) The azygos vein pathway: an overview from anatomical variations to pathological changes. Insights Imaging 5:619–628

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Debing E, Tielemans Y, Jolie E, Van den Brande P (1993) Congenital absence of inferior vena cava. Eur J Vasc Surg 7:201–203

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Milner LB, Marchan R (1980) Complete absence of the inferior vena cava presenting as a paraspinous mass. Thorax 35:798–800

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Bass JE, Redwine MD, Kramer LA, Harris JH Jr (1999) Absence of the infrarenal inferior vena cava with preservation of the suprarenal segment as revealed by CT and MR venography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 172:1610–1612

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Dougherty MJ, Calligaro KD, DeLaurentis DA (1996) Congenitally absent inferior vena cava presenting in adulthood with venous stasis and ulceration: a surgically treated case. J Vasc Surg 23:141–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Morgan G, Superina R (1994) Congenital absence of the portal vein: two cases and a proposed classification system for portasystemic vascular anomalies. J Pediatr Surg 29:1239–1241

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kew MC, Hodkinson HJ (2006) Membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava and its causal relation to hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int 26:1–7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Buckman RF, Pathak AS, Badellino MM, Bradley KM (2001) Injuries of the inferior vena cava. Surg Clin North Am 81:1431–1447

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Hewett JJ, Freed KS, Sheafor DH, Vaslef SN, Kliewer MA (2001) The spectrum of abdominal venous CT findings in blunt trauma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 176:955–958

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Singh AK, Nachiappan AC, Verma HA, Uppot RN, Blake MA, Saini S et al (2010) Postoperative imaging in liver transplantation: what radiologists should know. Radiographics 30:339–351

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Caplin DM, Nikolic B, Kalva SP, Ganguli S, Saad WE, Zuckerman DA et al (2011) Quality improvement guidelines for the performance of inferior vena cava filter placement for the prevention of pulmonary embolism. J Vasc Interv Radiol 22:1499–1506

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Harvey JJ, Hopkins J, McCafferty IJ, Jones RG (2013) Inferior vena cava filters: what radiologists need to know. Clin Radiol 68:721–732

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Vena Caval Filter Consensus C (2003) Recommended reporting standards for vena caval filter placement and patient follow-up. J Vasc Interv Radiol 14:S427–S432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Kaufman JA, Kinney TB, Streiff MB, Sing RF, Proctor MC, Becker D et al (2006) Guidelines for the use of retrievable and convertible vena cava filters: report from the Society of Interventional Radiology multidisciplinary consensus conference. J Vasc Interv Radiol 17:449–459

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Mahnken AH, Thomson K, de Haan M, O'Sullivan GJ (2014) CIRSE standards of practice guidelines on iliocaval stenting. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 37:889–897

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Bozkaya H, Cinar C, Ertugay S, Korkmaz M, Guneyli S, Posacioglu H et al (2015) Endovascular Treatment of Iliac Vein Compression (May-Thurner) Syndrome: Angioplasty and Stenting with or without Manual Aspiration Thrombectomy and Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis. Ann Vasc Dis 8:21–28

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Razavi MK, Hansch EC, Kee ST, Sze DY, Semba CP, Dake MD (2000) Chronically occluded inferior venae cavae: endovascular treatment. Radiology 214:133–138

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Wahlgren CM, Wahlberg E, Olofsson P (2010) Endovascular treatment in postthrombotic syndrome. Vasc Endovascular Surg 44:356–360

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Raju S, Hollis K, Neglen P (2006) Obstructive lesions of the inferior vena cava: clinical features and endovenous treatment. J Vasc Surg 44:820–827

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Neglen P, Hollis KC, Olivier J, Raju S (2007) Stenting of the venous outflow in chronic venous disease: long-term stent-related outcome, clinical, and hemodynamic result. J Vasc Surg 46:979–990

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Hartung O, Loundou AD, Barthelemy P, Arnoux D, Boufi M, Alimi YS (2009) Endovascular management of chronic disabling ilio-caval obstructive lesions: long-term results. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 38:118–124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Lee JM, Ko GY, Sung KB, Gwon DI, Yoon HK, Lee SG (2010) Long-term efficacy of stent placement for treating inferior vena cava stenosis following liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 16:513–519

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Huber TJ, Hammer S, Loss M, Muller-Wille R, Schreyer AG, Stroszczynski C et al (2014) Primary stent angioplasty of the inferior vena cava after liver transplantation and liver resection. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 37:949–957

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Imagerie Médicale, APHP, Hôpitaux Universitaires Henri Mondor, Créteil, 94000, France

    M. Chiaradia, F. Legou, V. Tacher, H. Kobeiter, F. Pigneur, A. Rahmouni & A. Luciani MD, PhD

  2. Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris Est Créteil, Créteil, 94000, France

    F. Legou, V. Tacher, H. Kobeiter, A. Rahmouni & A. Luciani MD, PhD

  3. Service de radiologie, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, 94800, France

    J. Arfi-Rouche

  4. Department of Radiology, Henri Mondor Hospital, Créteil, France

    A. Luciani MD, PhD

Authors
  1. M. Chiaradia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. F. Legou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J. Arfi-Rouche
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. V. Tacher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. H. Kobeiter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. F. Pigneur
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. A. Rahmouni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. A. Luciani MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. Luciani MD, PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Service de chirurgie hépato-biliaire, pancréatique et transplantation hépatique, Hôpital Henri-Mondor, Créteil, France

    Daniel Azoulay

  2. Service de chirurgie hépato-biliaire, pancréatique et transplantation hépatique, Hôpital Henri-Mondor, Créteil, France

    Chetana Lim

  3. Service de chirurgie hépato-biliaire, pancréatique et transplantation hépatique, Hôpital Henri-Mondor, Créteil, France

    Chady Salloum

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Chiaradia, M. et al. (2017). Imaging and Radiological Assessment of the Inferior Vena Cava. In: Azoulay, D., Lim, C., Salloum, C. (eds) Surgery of the Inferior Vena Cava. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25565-1_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25565-1_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-25563-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-25565-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation