China is a multi-ethnic country where all ethnic groups have jointly created the splendid Chinese national culture. In China, in addition to the commonly used Chinese Han script, many ethnic groups created and used a total of more than 30 scripts in different historical periods. China’s ethnic groups have left many and a wide variety of ancient books, which are rich in content and constitute an essential part of Chinese ancient books. These ancient books have significantly contributed to the cultural development and exchanges of various ethnic groups in China and added glorious chapters to the Chinese national culture.

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, studies on ethnic paleography had already begun but did not receive due attention for historical reasons. From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, many books written in ancient ethnic scripts were discovered in some ancient ruins in **, and ** Qicong studied the Jurchen script; ** Liang and Li Deqi studied Manchu script; Yu Daoquan studied the Old Tibetan script; Yang Chengzhi, Ding Wenjiang, and Ma Xueliang studied the Yi script; Shi Zhongjian studied the Bai script; and Fang Guoyu and Fu Maoji studied the Tomba script, among others. These scholars pioneered the study of ancient ethnic writing systems in China and laid the foundation for subsequent research on ethnic paleography and documents.

1 Studies on ethnic paleography in the early period of the People’s Republic of China

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the government implemented a policy of equality among all ethnic groups. Under the government’s initiative for greater attention to ethnic groups, the study of ethnic paleography was gradually revitalized. In the 1950s, an essential task for the government was ethnic identification. In 1956, a large-scale investigation into ethnic societies, cultures, and histories was launched, involving more than a thousand experts and scholars. The investigation covered the use of ancient and modern ethnic scripts and collected some ancient documents written in ethnic scripts while focusing on the society, history, and language of each ethnic group. For example, literature and documents written in the Old Tibetan script, the Old Dai script, the Classical Yi script, the Chagatay script, and the Shui script kept in the library of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences were collected at that time.

The study of ethnic paleography has always been a rarely-focused field, with only a few researchers interested. However, some related works were still published in the 1950s and 1960s. Examples included Research on “Hetian maqian” (** ethnic culture, enhancing ethnic unity, and maintaining national unity. The experts and scholars emphasized the importance of establishing a research association for conducting academic research and exchanging, organizing, and uniting experts in ethnic paleography to form a joint force. They decided to establish the research association in August 1980. In July 1980, Junast, a linguist specializing in the Monguor language, and Shi **bo, a historian of ethnic paleography, met staff with government organizations such as the Relics Bureau of Chengde Municipal in Hebei province to prepare for the founding.

On August 1st, 1980, the founding conference and the first symposium of the Association was held in Chengde Mountain Resort. About 100 passionate participants attended the event, including young and middle-aged scholars and senior experts such as Weng Dujian, Chen Shu, ** Kemu, Ma Xueliang, Li Sen, ** Zhou. (eds.) 2008-2016. 国家珍贵古籍名录图录 (Illustrated catalog of China’s rare ancient books). Bei**g: National Library of China Publishing House." href="/article/10.1186/s41257-024-00110-w#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d192666828e588">2008-2016), the five batches were compiled and edited by the National Library of China and the National Center for Preservation and Conservation of Ancient Books in succession and published by the National Library of China Publishing House by batch successively, and five batches have been published so far. (the 1st batch: 8 volumes, published in 2008; the 2nd batch: 10 volumes, published in 2010; the 3rd batch: 8 volumes, published in 2012; the 4th batch: 6 volumes, published in 2014; and the 5th batch: 6 volumes, published in 2016), with Zhan Furui and Zhou He** serving as Editor-in-Charge, Li Zhizhong as Managing Editor, Shi **bo and Zhu Fenghan as Deputy Editor-in-Charge. The last volume of each batch is always a rare ancient ethnic book. In this sense, the five batches include 1,000 such books. In 2019, the review of the sixth batch started countrywide. The catalog covers China’s rare ancient books written in Han characters and other Chinese ethnic scripts. It means a lot to promoting the culture of China’s ethnic groups and accelerating its development.

The published Illustrated catalog of China’s rare ancient books contains ancient books written in China’s various ethnic languages. Specifically, they are written in the Yanqi-Kutsi, the Khotanese, the Old Tibetan, the Old Uyghurt, the **xia, the Uighur Mongolian, the Chagatay, the Square Bai, the Classical Yi, the Manchut, the Tomba, the Old Dehong Dai, the Shui, the Old Zhuang, and the ancient Bouyei scripts, and some of the rare ancient books are written in a combination of more than one ethnic script. These marvelous works partly present the exquisiteness of ancient books in China’s ethnic languages and the richness of China’s multi-ethnic culture. Among them, the most representative ones are as follows:

  1. a)

    Maytri simit, completed in the Yanqi-Kutsi script in the 5th–6th century, known as the earliest drama work in Chinese history, now collected in the **njiang Museum;

  2. b)

    Dhāraṇī, written in the Khotanese script over a thousand years ago, now collected in the National Library of China;

  3. c)

    Catalog of Buddhist texts collected in Pangtang palace, written in the Old Tibetan script and compiled in the ninth century, believed to have been lost for a long time, now collected in the **zang Museum;

  4. d)

    On Hetuvidya, written in the Old Tibetan script about Hetuvidya by Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen, a Tibetan spiritual leader and Buddhist scholar and the fourth of the Five Sakya Forefathers; published in Dadu (now Bei**g), capital of the Yuan Dynasty; now collected in the **zang Museum;

  5. e)

    Maytri simit, written in the Old Uyghur script in the Northern Song Dynasty, now collected in the **njiang Museum;

  6. f)

    A lithograph of a Western **a Dynasty’s Buddhist texts translating activity, the only surviving ancient picture book that vividly reflects the translation activities and sites then, now collected in the National Library of China;

  7. g)

    The secret history of the Mongols, a historical literature written in the Uighur-Mongol script, believed to have been lost for a long time and found in recent years in the Tholing Monastery, Zanda County, Ngari Prefecture, **zang Autonomous Region, now collected in the Tholing Monastery in Zanda County, **zang Autonomous Region;

  8. h)

    Collected poems of Ali-Shir Nava’i, a book of collected poems written in the Chagatay script by Ali-Shir Nava’i, a great Uyghur poet and thinker in the 15th century, now collected in the **njiang Museum and the National Library of China;

  9. i)

    Euclid’s elements, written in the Manchu script, with comments of Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty, now collected in the Inner Mongolia Library;

  10. j)

    Annals of Qing Dynasty events, Words of Qing Dynasty Emperors, and Aisin Gioro clan (Genealogy Records), written in the Manchu script for Qing Dynasty’s royal families;

  11. k)

    Yi people’s records, written in the Classical Yi script to record the ancient society of the Yi people in the form of pictures and texts, now collected in the Yunnan Office for Ethnic Minority Ancient Books Compilation and Publication Planning;

  12. l)

    On Karma, a palm-leaf manuscript made with special techniques and written in the Old Dehong Dai script with gold and silver powder, now collected in the Office for Ethnic Minority Ancient Books Compilation and Publication Planning in **shuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan;

  13. m)

    Dongba dance notation, written in the Tomba script, a kind of hieroglyphic, with content and version all of significant artistic value; now collected in the Dongba Cultural Research Institute in Lijiang, Yunnan;

  14. n)

    Shui people’s Encyclopedia, written in the Shui script, dubbed as the encyclopedia of Shui ethnic society, now collected in the Guizhou Sandu Shui Autonomous County Archives Bureau;

  15. o)

    A 3000-word Chinese-Old Zhuang script dictionary, written in a unique style and form in the Old Zhuang script serving as a reference book for Zhuang people to learn Chinese characters, now collected in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Office for Ethnic Minority Ancient Books Compilation and Publication Planning.

In addition, there are multi-lingual ancient books written in two or more languages, including those combining Chinese Han and ethnic scripts and those featuring a combination of various ethnic scripts. This reflects the history of China as a multi-ethnic country, highlighting the close ties, exchanges, and integration among various ethnic groups. The most representative ones are as follows:

  1. p)

    The translation of Hui-tong-si-yi guan, with the Chinese-Ethnic language version and 31 translations;

  2. q)

    The Five-language Book of Manchurian, Mongolian, Tibetan, Jiarong, and Uighur Languages, a Qing Dynasty dictionary using five different scripts to record the pronunciation of the same word, now collected in the Library of the Palace Museum;

  3. r)

    Manchu-Mongolian-Chinese Han-Tibetan Dictionary of Qing Dynasty, Manchu-Mongolian-Chinese Han-Tibetan-Uygur Dictionary of Qing Dynasty, and A Dictionary for Proper Names of the Western Region, written in the Manchu and five other scripts);

  4. s)

    Calligraphy collection, a Qing Dynasty publication that gathers calligraphy works of the Chinese Han, Indian, **njiang, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibetan, Mongolian, and other languages with illustrations of Tibetan Buddhist precepts, which is of great value to study the languages of ethnic groups, now collected in the **zang Norbulingka Administration Office.Footnote 2

4.3 Specialized preservation and conservation work of ancient books in **zang and **njiang

The preservation of ancient ethnic books is of great importance to China. This is why the country has implemented effective special measures to protect these invaluable historical treasures for future generations. To further promote the protection of ancient books written in the Tibetan script, on November 6, 2009, eight ministries and commissions, including the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People’s Republic of China, National Press and Publication Administration, National Religious Affairs Administration, National Cultural Heritage Administration, and National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, jointly issued the “Notice on Supporting the Preservation and Conservation of Ancient Book in Tibetan-language.” As a result, a working group for protecting ancient books in Tibetan-language affiliated with the National Center for Preservation and Conservation of Ancient Books was set up and established special funds for protecting ancient books in the **zang Autonomous Region with the funding of the Chinese Ancient Books Protection Initiative. Members of the joint conference of eight ministries and commissions on the preservation and conservation of ancient books in Tibetan-language, as well as ancient book protection experts from the National Center for Preservation and Conservation of Ancient Books, the National Ancient Books Protection Committee, the China Tibetology Research Center and the **zang Autonomous Region, attended a symposium on the protection of ancient books in Tibetan-language in Bei**g. The project for the protection of ancient books in Tibetan-language was launched.

With rich experience from the successful implementation of the project of ancient books protection project in **zang, the eight ministries and commissions jointly issued the “Notice on Supporting the Preservation and Conservation of Ancient Books in the **njiang Uygur Autonomous Region” in January 2011, which initiated a special project for protecting ancient books in **njiang, creating a more favorable environment for the protection work with the state’s key special support.

Providing special targeted support policies for the two autonomous regions with rich ethnic ancient books is a pragmatic and adaptive initiative in the innovative construction of ethnic culture. This approach holds significant importance in advancing the protection and research of ancient ethnic books.

4.4 The standards for classifying Chinese ancient ethnic books

On August 1, 2007, the Ministry of Culture issued the “Notice on the Issuance of the National Census of Ancient Books and Other Documents”, which stipulated that “standards on classifying Chinese ancient ethnic books shall be formulated under the leadership of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission and promulgated for implementation”. On January 14, 2008, the National Ethnic Affairs Commission issued the “Notice on Preparation for Classifying Chinese Ancient Ethnic Books,” which further stipulated that the Library of the Cultural Palace of Ethnicities should take the lead in preparing the standards.

In the process of Reviewing the Catalog of China’s Rare Ancient Books, the review group of ancient ethnic books on the actual needs of the work studied and formulated the “Selection Criteria of the National Catalog of Rare Ancient Ethnic Books” in December 2008 concerning the grading standards on ancient books of the Chinese Han people, and in accordance with the characteristics of ethnic books of multi-language and multi-types, to accurately facilitate the review of rare ancient ethnic books, which is, in effect, a preliminary formulation of grading standards for the first and second levels of ancient ethnic books.

In April 2009, the Expert Argumentation Meeting on Classification of Ancient Ethnic Books was held at the Cultural Palace of Ethnicities, with Yang Changhong, Shi **bo, Wu Guibiao, Aihemaiti Maimaiti, Li **aodong, Zhang Zhiqing, Dong Wenliang, Li Dongsheng, Yang Chongqing, Baoyin Jigela, Cui Guangbi, **anba, Huang Runhua, Wang Yao, Zhang Gong**, Liang Tingwang, Huang Jianming, Dalizhabu Bao, Tsering Thar, Zhu Chongxian, Huang Youfu, Wu Yuanfeng, Chen Hongyan, and some other scholars participating in drafting the Standards on Classifying Chinese Ancient Ethnic Books. After repeated discussions and revisions, the draft of grading standards was completed in 2012, during which many research seminars and discussion forums were held in ethnic areas, and experimental classification was implemented in many relevant areas, yielding positive results. The final “Standards on Classifying Chinese Ancient Ethnic Books” was released on September 17, 2018, by the State Administration for Market Regulation and China’s Standardization Administration and implemented on April 1, 2019. These necessary grading standards play an irreplaceable role in guiding the grading and protection of ancient ethnic books in a more scientific and legalized manner.

4.5 Ancient ethnic books in the “Facsimile Reprint Project of Chinese Rare Books”

In 2002, China set up a national key cultural project, the “Facsimile Reprint Project of Chinese Rare Books”, which is a systematic cultural project to protect and rationally develop and utilize ancient books through large-scale reproduction and publication, with substantial government funding. The project is co-chaired by the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Culture and carried out by the National Library of China in cooperation with a group of top Chinese scholars. In this sense, those rare ancient books can be put into practical use by the academic community and shared by the public. The “Facsimile Reprint Project of Chinese Rare Books” includes “Compilations of the Tang and Song Dynasties”, “Compilations of the ** and Yuan Dynasties”, “Compilations of the Ming Dynasty”, “Compilations of the Qing Dynasty”, and “Compilation of Literature in Ethnic Minority Languages.” Each compilation consists of classics, history books, works of various philosophies of Buddhism and Taoism, anthologies, and series.

The project is divided into two phases. In the second phase, more than 30 kinds of ancient books in ethnic scripts were selected, including Maytri simit in the Yanqi-Kutsi script, Dhāraṇī in the Khotanese script, A biography of the Tripitaka master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty in the Old Uyghur script, Tangut version of Samputa-santra in the **xia script, Prajnaparamita sutra in the Square Bai script, The classic of Filial Piety, and Biography of Altan Khan in the Uighur-Mongol script, The four medical classics in the Old Tibetan script, The collected poems of Nawa’i in the Chagatai Script, The imperial poem to the city of Sheng**g in the Manchu script, San he bian lan in the Manchu, Chinese Han and Mongolian scripts, The book of good behaviors in the Yi script, The book of genesis in the Tomba script, On Karma in the Old Dehong Dai script, Me po tang in the Old Zhuang script, Geng jia in the Shui script, and so on.Footnote 3 These are all masterpieces of ancient ethnic books, demonstrating the splendid culture of the Chinese nation and the superb craftsmanship of the production of ancient ethnic books.

5 New progress in the study of ancient ethnic scripts and books

In the past 70 years since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, especially in the past 40 years since China’s Reform and opening-up, the research on ethnic paleography has seen unprecedented development. It has yielded numerous spectacular results that have received increasing attention both at home and abroad, thanks to the endeavors of two or three generations of specialists.

Since the 1990s, numerous comprehensive and systematic studies of ethnic scripts and books have been published, including Sample scripts of ancient ethnic writings in China (Fu 1990), An introduction to Chinese ancient ethnic books (Wu 1995), An overview on ethnic ancient books (Zhang 1997), Scripts and literature of Chinese ethnic groups (Wei 2004), Studies on ancient ethnic scripts and literature (Shi and Huang 2008), Collection of precious classics in Chinese ethnic scripts (Vol. 1–28) (Zhang et al. 2017).

A great deal of research has also been done on various ancient ethnic scripts, briefly listed as follows:

  1. (1)

    Kharosthi script studies: The issue of the dating of the Kharosthi documents unearthed in **njiang (Ma 1979), A comprehensive research of the ancient Kharosthi scripts in the Shanshan and Khotan areas (Ma 1980), and The Shahai scroll: the Kharosthi documents unearthed in China (Lin 1988).

  2. (2)

    Yanqi-Kutsi studies: The thirty-two features of the Buddha in Tocharian A (Ji 1982), and Translation and interpretation of Tocharian “Maitreyasamiitnātaka” (Ji 1998).

  3. (3)

    Old Tibetan script studies: Collection of the ancient Tibetan inscriptions (Wang 1982); Comprehensive record of Tubo bamboo (Wang and Chen 1986), and Tibetan historical documents found in Dunhuang (Wang and Chen 1992), Catalogue and explanatory questions of the Dunhuang Tibetan manuscript collected in France (Wang 1999).

Collated and translated studies on ancient Tibetan historical books: Records of Tibetan kings (Wang 1949); Records of Tibetan kings and ministers (Guo 1983), The blue chronicle (Guo 1985), and Bu-ston’s history of Buddhism in Tibet (Guo 1989), The new red annals (Huang 1984), Biography of Milarepa (Liu 1985a) and Tu guan zong pai yuan liu (Liu 1985b), A collection of Han and Tibetan histories (Chen 1986), and The red annals (Chen 1988), The history of politics and religion in the Amdo region (Wu et al. 1987), The history of the Sakya lineage (Che and Gao 2002), A scholar’s feast—A translation and commentary on the history of the Tubo (Huang and Zhou 2010).

In addition, there are also some ancient Tibetan literature and history books collated and published documenting important families, monasteries, and historical figures, such as The history of Lang’s family, The chorography of Tal temple, and Polhané Sönam topgyé.Footnote 4

  1. (4)

    Old Uyghur script studies: Two Old Uighur contracts (Feng 1960) and Three Uighur documents concerning buying and selling of a slave named Pintung (Feng 1958), Gaochang guan ke (Hu and Huang 1981), Introduction to ancient Uyghur culture and literature (Geng 1983), Studies on Uyghur ancient literature (Geng 2003), and Studies on socio-economic documents in the Old Uyghur script (Geng 2006), Studies on socio-economic documents in the Old Uyghur script found in Turpan (li 1996), An introduction to ancient Uyghur characters and literature (Niu 1997), Literature and culture of the Old Uyghur (Yang 2003), A Discussion on Contractual Document in the Old Uyghur Script (Liu 2000), and Translation and annotation of contracts of sale and purchase in the Old Uyghur Script (Liu 2006).

  2. (5)

    **xia script studies: large-scale literature series including **xia documents from Khara-Khoto collected in Russia (Vol. 1–29) (The Saint Petersburg Branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Classics Publishing House, and the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of CASS 1996-2019), and Documents from Khara-Khoto collected in Britain Vol. 1–5) (North Minzu University, Shanghai Classics Publishing House, and the British Library 2005-2010).

Results of literature collation and research include A Study on a sea of characters (Shi et al. 1983), A study of the homophones (Li 1986), A study on leilin (Shi et al. 1993), A new collection of **xia proverbs (Chen 1993), and A study of zhen guan yu **g jiang (Chen 1995), A study on sea of meanings established by saints (Kychanov et al. 1995), Amended and reapproved law of the Tiansheng reign (Shi et al. 2000), A study on dexing ji in **xia language (Nie 2002), A study of “Confucius and Laozi at the Altar” in **xia language (Kychanov and Nie 2009), A Collection of textual research of **xia literature (Sun 2015), A study on **xia literature unearthed in Wuwei (Liang 2015a), A collating research on the Tangut medical literature in Heishuicheng unearthed (Liang 2015b), A study of **xia’s economic documents (Shi 2017), and Research on the Liri literature in **xia language in Russian (Peng 2018). Other research works include Liangzhou alliance and Tibetan Buddhism in **xia: An interpretation of the remains of “Dabaisangai Tuoluoni **g” in **xia language (Shi 2016).

  1. (6)

    Khitan script studies: A study of the Khitan small script (Chinggeltei et al. 1985), Looking for a path in the forest of riddles: A New approach to the decipherment of Khitan small script (Ji 1996) and Plowing the field of riddles: further deciphering Khitan small script (Ji 2012); Classified compilation of studies on Khitan scripts Vol. 1–4 (Liu 2014), and Further research on Khitan small script (Vol. 1–3) (Chinggeltei and Ji 2017).

  2. (7)

    Jurchen script studies: A study of Jurchen language and script (** and ** 1980), An edited interpretation of a Jurchen text “The ** victory memorial stele” (Chimeddorji and ** 1984), Gaochang guan zazi (Hu and Huang 1984), A Jurchen characters dictionary (** 1984), The Jurchen language in ** Dynasty (Sun 2004), and Jurchen language translation supplement and Jurchen language dictionary (Liu 2019).

  3. (8)

    Uighur Mongolian script studies: A compilation of documents in Uyghur Khaganate style Mogolian document (Daubu 1982). Annotated translation works of Uighur Mongolian script: The Secret History of the Mongols (**e 1957), The Mongol chronicle altan tobci (Liu 1980), Chinese translation of outlines of the golden history of the Mongols (Zhu and Jia 1985), The secret history of the Yuan Dynasty (Geshkbatu 2000). The Study of “Erdeniin tobchi” (Ulaan 2000) and Collated edition of the secret history of the Mongols (Ulaan 2012), and A Study on Mongolian manuscripts unearthed in Ngari prefecture, **zang (Sarengaowa 2013).

  4. (9)

    hP’ags-pa Script studies: HP’ags-pa characters and Chinese in the Yuan Dynasty (Luo and Cai 1959), A critical edition of Menggu Ziyun (Junast and Yang 1987), HP’ags-pa characters and Mongolian literature, Part 1: Research (Junast 1990), HP’ags-pa characters and Mongolian literature, Part 2: Documents (Junast 1991), and A new edition of hundred family names in Yuan Dynasty in the HP’ags-pa characters. (Junast 2003).

  5. (10)

    Chagatay script studies: The Tarikh-i-Rashidi: A history of the Moghuls of Central Asia (The Institute of Ethnology of **njiang Academy of Social Sciences 1983), Annotated and edited translation of the “Tarikh-i-Rashidi” (Wang 1985), and Ta’rikh i amniye (Wang 2000), and Annotated translation of Chaghatay literature in the Qing Dynasty (Miao 2013).

  6. (11)

    Manchu script studies: Union catalog of world Manchu texts (Fu 1983), The original files of the Ministry of Justice in Sheng**g area from the 3rd to the 4th year of Chongde reign (The First Historical Archives of China 1985), Files of the 9th year of Tiancong reign of Emperor Taizong of the Qing Dynasty (1635) (Guan et al. 1987), Old Manchu archive (The First Historical Archives of China and Institute Of History, Chinese Academy Of Social Sciences 1990), The Tongki fuka akū hergen i dangse Vol. 1–10 (Feng 2005), Comprehensive catalog of Manchu books in Bei**g (Manchu Editorial Department of Bei**g Ethnic Minority Ancient Books Compilation and Publication Planning Group 2008), A complete edition of Old Manchu archive Vol. 1–20 (The First Historical Archives of China 2010), Union catalog of Manchu books and other materials (Huang and Qu 1991), and Illustrated record of Manchu documents in the holdings of the National Library of China (Huang 2010).

  7. (12)

    Classical Yi script studies: The Nuosu book of origins: A creation epic from Southwest China (Feng 1986), Chronicles of the Southwestern Yi (Guizhou Institute of Ethnology 1982), Dialogues on universe and humanity) (Luo and Chen 1984), Updated compilation of Cuan wen Ccong ke Vol 1–3 (Ma and Luo 1986-1987), Translation and annotation of the “Quan shan **g” in Yi language (Ma and Zhang 1986), History of the Clan Tribes of the Yi People (Yang 1992), Collected translations of the “book of guiding” in Yi script (Guoji and Ling 1993), Outline of the Yi ethnic ancient literature (Huang 1993), The chronicles of the Yi in Southwest China (The Yi-Chinese Translation Group in Bijie, Guizhou Province 1988), and The history of the Yi Vol. 1–4 (The Yi-Chinese Translation Group in Bijie, Guizhou Province 1989), The history of the Yi (Wang and Wang 2005), and The Chronicles of the Yi in Southwest China Vol. 1–26 (Wang and Wang 2015).

  8. (13)

    Tomba script studies: Translations and annotations of Mo-so classics: Nine volumes (Li et al. 1978), Selected translations of Dongba classics (He 1984), A survey of Naxi Dongba culture books and inheritance (Bu 1999), A study of Naxi Picture Writings of the “The white Bbat’s journey” (Fu 2012).

  9. (14)

    Old Zhuang Script studies: Dictionary of Old Zhuang script (The Ethnic Groups Ancient Books Compilation and Publication Planning Group of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 1989), and Selected annotations of Old Zhuang literature (Liang 1992).

  10. (15)

    Shui script studies: Studies on the culture of the Chinese Shui (Pan and Wei 2004).

The above list includes only a part of the research results on ethnic paleography, covering not only comprehensive and macroscopic research on the ancient scripts of various ethnic groups and their literature but also in-depth interpretation of those scripts and relevant literature, not only the basic collation and translation of the literature but also the innovative results of further research; not only the writings of scholars but also the book series compiled by groups of scholars. Research on ancient Chinese ethnic scripts has created numerous outstanding and original achievements in various fields and remarkable global contributions.

6 Conclusion

Reviewing the past and looking forward to the future, we find that the prospect of research on ancient ethnic scripts and books is brilliant. Nevertheless, there is still much work to be done. In addition to the continuous cultivation and construction of the professionals, the following suggestions are expected to be valued.

6.1 Carrying out the census of ancient ethnic books

The extensive volume and wide distribution of ancient ethnic scripts and books are far beyond people’s expectations. For example, abundant ancient Tibetan books are yet to be further collated and studied in the five libraries of the Potala Palace in ** further research on ancient ethnic books

Although the census of ancient ethnic books has been gradually carried out, the knowledge and identification skills of these ancient books are still lagging, which hindered the protection of ancient books. At least two aspects that require particular attention.

  1. (1)

    Emphasis on guiding and strengthening the research on the versions of ancient ethnic books. Compared to the study of versions of ancient Chinese books, research on the versions of ancient ethnic books is still in its early stages. There is a lack of in-depth examination from the perspective of version identification, affecting the cognition and identification of ancient ethnic books. Addressing this issue is urgently needed.

  2. (2)

    Enhanced research on the content and value of critical ancient ethnic books and subsequent focus on publishing and digitization efforts. Compilation and publishing involve direct photocopying for the academic community to see primary sources and translating them into Chinese for broader dissemination. Without language barriers, the latter approach will have a larger audience and make a more significant impact. To bring the scripts in ancient ethnic books to life and maximize their utility, we should translate valuable ancient ethnic books into the standard national language, conduct extensive research, and explore their value. Only then can such an outstanding cultural heritage be shared with a broader audience.

6.3 Optimizing the classification of ancient ethnic books

While “The Standards on Classification of Chinese Ancient Books in Ethnic Minorities’ Languages” has been implemented, the different languages and forms of ancient ethnic books bring new problems and thus require ongoing research and refinement of classification standards. This involves holding targeted training sessions and building expert teams to evaluate and classify essential collections of ancient ethnic books. In addition to the experts in corresponding languages, the team should have experts in version identification, history, ethnic culture, and other subjects to examine from a multi-dimensional perspective to draw accurate conclusions.

6.4 Further strengthening the philological and linguistic research on ancient ethnic books

Over the 70 years since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the study of ethnic paleography has gained increasing attention as an academic discipline. CASS designated it as a “specialized discipline” twice in 2006 and 2017 and strongly supported its development. In 2018, the National Social Science Fund of China established specialized research programs for obscure and endangered disciplines, among which more than 20 research fields, such as Dunhuang studies, Tibetology, **xia studies, Mongolology, ethnolinguistics, paleography, and the compilation and study of ancient books and literature, were related to the study of ethnic paleography. The support reflects the great importance that China attaches to the study of ethnic paleography. However, there is still a need to strengthen the philological and linguistic research on ancient ethnic books. It is crucial to focus on both general and comparative graphology of newly discovered ancient ethnic scripts, enhance the research on the linguistic methodology of ethnic paleography, and bolster diachronic linguistic research on phonetic ethnic scripts. By doing so, we will be able to uncover the historical evolution of the languages recorded in these texts, which, in turn, will aid in the standardization, regularization, and informatization of contemporary ethnic languages and scripts.

6.5 Deepening the understanding of the practical significance of research on ethnic paleography and books

Ancient ethnic scripts and books represent the brilliant gems in the treasure trove of Chinese national history and culture, holding rich connotations of ethnic progress, harmony, coexistence, communication, exchanges, and national unity. By organizing, translating, and studying ethnic paleography and books, we can fully reveal these positive ideologies of various ethnic groups throughout Chinese history. This has important practical significance for consolidating the national consciousness of various ethnic groups and strengthening the collective consciousness of the Chinese nation.

For example, the compilation of Manchu Ancient Book Official biographies of Mongolian and Hui princes and nobles recognized by imperial edict for their meritorious service in the forty-fourth year of Qianlong’s imperial reign (1779) and its publication in the Chinese Han, Manchu, and Mongolian languages in the seventh year of Qing Emperor Jiaqing’s reign (1802) hold academic value and practical significance for studying the history of the Mongols, Tibetans, Uygurs, and the close relationships among various ethnic groups during the Qing Dynasty. Another example is the ancient book that was recently discovered in the **xia script. Dabaisangai Tuoluoni **gFootnote 5 tells the story that the Mongolian prince Kuoduan accepted Tibetan Buddhism in Liangzhou, which was a former territory of Western **a (**xia); in 1244, he had Buddhist scriptures engraved in the Tibetan, **xia, and Chinese Han scripts. Later, he reached the Liangzhou Covenant with the Tibetan religious leader Sakya Pandita, leading to the incorporation of **zang into the Yuan Dynasty’s territory and the realization of national unity. This story is robust evidence for important events in the formation and development of China as a multi-ethnic nation, holding significant historical and practical value.

The significant achievements and remarkable progress in the research of China’s ethnic paleography have enriched historical and cultural knowledge of the Chinese nation, showcased the rich and diverse cultures of different ethnic groups, promoted a comprehensive understanding of the unity in diversity within the Chinese nation and boosted cultural confidence of all Chinese ethnic groups. Ancient ethnic scripts and books are not only a form of culture but also a valuable resource, serving as an essential asset in fortifying the collective consciousness of the Chinese nation.

The flourishing and splendid achievements in China’s ethnic paleography research represent China’s pioneering effort as a multi-ethnic, multilingual, and multi-script country, which not only fully reflects the policy of equality of all ethnic groups but also revitalizes the ancient scripts and books of China’s 56 ethnic groups. The research has made practical contributions to promoting the outstanding cultural heritage of the Chinese nation, strengthening ethnic unity, and safeguarding national unity. It is foreseeable that the research on ancient scripts, literature, and books of Chinese ethnic groups will have even brighter prospects in the new era, making renewed and more remarkable contributions to modern civilization in contemporary China.