1 Introduction

Inquiry-based science teaching actively engages students in scientific learning through questioning, exploration, and hands-on investigations (Crawford, 2014; Schwartz et al., 2023). Inquiry is therefore defined as a pedagogical approach that fosters students’ active engagement in scientific practices and reasoning (de Jong et al., 2023). It has been widely advocated by recent curricular reforms in different countries, such as the USA (NGSS Lead States, 2013), Chile (MINEDUC, 2012), and many others (Schwartz et al., 2023; Strat et al., 2023). Spain has also adopted this approach in its new educational reform LOMLOE (2020), which emphasizes inquiry as a key element for science education. However, implementing effective inquiry teaching poses challenges for educators (Baroudi & Helder, 2019; Toma, 2022a). One challenge is the need for professional development to adapt instructional practices and design meaningful lessons (Correia & Harrison, 2019; Romero-Ariza et al., 2019). Incorporating inquiry teaching with laboratory materials has merits but also limitations (Chichekian et al., 2016). Limited availability and accessibility of resources hinder effective implementation, while setup and management of experiments are time-demanding (Fang, 2020). Additionally, online teaching and emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic limit access to laboratory facilities and hands-on experiences (Carrillo & Flores, 2020; Raman et al., 2022). Alternative approaches to inquiry teaching are needed to ensure high-quality, reform-oriented learning experiences in science education (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020).

1.1 Virtual laboratories and simulations

Against this background, virtual laboratories –online platforms that replicate physical laboratories to conduct experiments– and simulations –computer-generated models that mimic scientific phenomena– have emerged as transformative solutions for science teaching, addressing the challenges faced in traditional laboratory settings. Raman et al. (2022) conducted a historical review and bibliometric analyses, highlighting the growing interest in virtual laboratories, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic. Platforms like PhET Colorado (Wieman et al., 2008) and ChemCollective (Yaron et al., 2010) have become pioneers in this domain, offering a wide range of virtual simulations. Online laboratories and simulations overcome limitations such as physical equipment constraints, time, and location, allowing students to explore scientific concepts at their convenience (Correia et al., 2019; Radhamani et al., 2021). Multiple studies, as reported in the literature reviews of Scalise et al. (2011) and Smetana and Bell (2012), have reported on the effectiveness of virtual laboratories and simulations in improving student learning. Hence, the use of Information-Communication-Technology (ICT) in science teaching is also being promoted within the Spanish new curricular reform (LOMLOE, 2020).

Virtual simulations have greatly contributed to improving science education worldwide. However, their implementation in inquiry-based settings lacks the incorporation of recommended steps or phases involving a scientific inquiry (Aditomo & Klieme, 2020; Pedaste et al., 2015). While virtual simulations offer some aspects of the inquiry-based science teaching methodology, they often fall short of capturing the complete inquiry cycle. It should be noted that the inquiry cycle is a framework that describes the phases that could be used for the didactic transposition of an inquiry-based unit (Pedaste et al., 2015). Indeed, online labs tend to focus on isolated experiments or simulations (Scalise et al., 2011), lacking the contextualization necessary for a comprehensive understanding of scientific inquiry. For example, important steps such as formulating research questions, generating hypotheses, or identifying the variables of the study (Aguilera et al., 2018; Zhang, 2018) are missing. PhET and similar resources are designed for educational settings where teachers guide simulation use (Correia et al., 2019; Roll et al., 2018); therefore, it may resemble decontextualized experiments rather than conveying the full process of scientific inquiry.

To address these limitations, educators can use the Go-Lab ecosystem (de Jong et al., 2021), which integrates existing simulations into an inquiry cycle and provides tools to support scientific practices, such as asking research questions or hypothesis generation. Nevertheless, this approach can be time-consuming for teachers, who must either build the entire process or adapt existing units. Indeed, when a single teacher created or adapted units using the Go-Lab platform, they spent over four hours on average; when a group of teachers designed the units together, the average time spent increased to more than seven hours (de Jong et al., 2021).

1.2 The present study

In short, virtual laboratories and simulations have enriched science teaching, but they also bring unique challenges (Ali et al., 2022). One major challenge is their limited coverage of all necessary steps in scientific inquiry, focusing mainly on experimental simulation. Therefore, there is a need to design and develop virtual resources for inquiry-based science teaching that adhere to established standards and best practices from the literature while being convenient and time-efficient for classroom implementation. The Spanish context presents a particular challenge for the implementation of inquiry teaching, as teachers tend to rely heavily on the textbook as the main resource and show resistance and misconceptions regarding the adoption of inquiry practices (Cañal et al., 2016; García-Carmona et al., 2018).

To address this gap in the literature, this study introduces IndagApp, an educational resource designed to support inquiry teaching. Next, it focuses on the usability of IndagApp as perceived by elementary school pre-service teachers. By doing so, this study aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to create efficient resources for inquiry-based science teaching. This endeavor is an innovative contribution to the field of inquiry-based science teaching, as it presents ICT resources that encompass all the phases of the inquiry cycle (Pedaste et al., 2015). To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no other ICT resource has achieved this level of comprehensiveness and alignment with the inquiry approach.

2 Description of IndagApp

2.1 Design process

The IndagApp resource was developed using a user-centered design (Lowdermilk, 2013). This design methodology involves end users in the development process. By doing so, it aims to create applications that meet user needs and ensure usability and user adequate user experience. During the first phase, conceptualization, the team advanced an idea for the app based on findings from a prior investigation that identified teacher use and difficulties in adopting ICT for science teaching (Yánez-Pérez et al., in press a). The second phase, definition, identified the target users and the functional use of the resource. This step determined the scope of the project for pre-service and in-service teachers and students aged 10–14 years old. During the third phase, named design, the team created and improved sketches for the app with end-user input. Material and content (i.e., the inquiry units) were next developed and aligned with the new curricula in Spain (LOMLOE, 2020). During the fourth phase, development, the team coded the app and implemented all its functions. The goals and initial ideas were, therefore, materialized in a prototype of the app. The fifth and final phase, testing, addresses the usability of IndagApp. A previous study (Yánez-Pérez et al., in press b) tested the usability of the app with university professors with extensive experience in ICT use for science education and in-service teachers. Their feedback improved the app, resulting in the second version of IndagApp, which is the one being tested in this study.

2.2 Technical characteristics

IndagApp is a 3D educational resource designed for students aged 10–14 and science teachers. It was created using Unreal Engine 4 and Blender software for programming and develo** 3D models, while Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Premiere software were used for creating textures and materials. IndagApp is compatible with Android 5.0 + smartphones and tablets, as well as PCs with Windows 7 or above operating system. Users can log in to save their progress. The app also allows researchers to track the errors made by the users during each inquiry phase. The Android version is free on the Google Play Store. The PC version is also available for free by contacting the corresponding author or accessing the project website (http://www.webciencia.es/). Currently, the app is only available in Spanish. However, the authors are in the process of translating it into English and Portuguese.

2.3 Content and teaching units

The app includes ten inquiry units covering various phenomena aligned with the most recent Spanish curriculum (Real Decreto 157/2022 [Royal Decree 157/2022]). These didactic units targeted the curricular contents that could be addressed and learned by conducting an experimental investigation involving variable manipulation. However, following the scientific inquiry literature (Pedaste et al., 2015; Toma, 2022b) this teaching methodology does not suit all curricular contents. Therefore, it is crucial to avoid conveying to students the erroneous idea that science only relies on the experimental method, i.e., “the” scientific method (Emden, 2021). Therefore, the IndagApp units cover topics such as plant growth, crystal formation, forces, floods, bacterial growth, photosynthesis, buoyancy, valley formation, light refraction, and balloon flight (Fig. 1). It is important to note that this content is relevant not only to the Spanish curriculum but also to primary and secondary education worldwide. The app includes realistic simulations, accurate data recording, and interactive controls. Students can manipulate variables, observe outcomes, and draw conclusions just as they would in a traditional lab setting. Hence, all inquiry units follow a common structure rooted in research-based principles (de Jong et al., 2023; Osborne, 2014; Pedaste et al., 2015). Specifically, the Pedaste et al. (2015) inquiry cycle was used, with simpler terms for teachers and students.

Fig. 1
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3D model for the inquiry unit about balloon flight

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In short, each inquiry unit consists of five phases. The first phase (Statement of the problem) starts with a real-world learning situation. The purpose of this phase is to motivate students and introduce the inquiry's subject matter in a way that is relevant to their daily lives and experiences (Fig. 2). During the second phase (Research question and hypothesis), students are encouraged to ask specific and relevant questions about the natural phenomenon. The goal is for them to learn how to formulate clear and precise questions that can be answered through an experimental design. In the hypothesis formulation step, students are presented with tentative answers to the research question, resulting in four different hypotheses for each inquiry. They discuss and choose whether each hypothesis will be confirmed or rejected.

Fig. 2
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Example of a real-world situation to introduce an inquiry unit

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Next, in the third phase (Experimental design), students identify the dependent, independent, and control variables for the experimental design. These variables will be utilized to test the proposed hypotheses. In the fourth phase (Findings and interpretation), students use virtual simulations specifically designed for IndagApp to test each hypothesis. They record five sets of data by manipulating and controlling the experimental variables (Fig. 3). The collected data are then organized in a results table for visual interpretation. A figure is then generated, and students analyze the data to identify patterns, relationships, and explanations relevant to their research question. Additionally, they answer four dichotomous questions (yes/no) regarding the experimentation and the collected data to assess whether they are correctly interpreting the results. In the final phase (Conclusion and reflection), students' understanding is assessed through reinforcement and application questions. These questions evaluate their comprehension of the subject matter and their ability to apply the acquired knowledge to real-life situations. Essentially, this phase examines whether users can use the concepts investigated in the inquiry unit within different real-life problem contexts.

Fig. 3
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Example of experimental simulation for the balloon flight inquiry

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2.4 Scaffolding strategies

Following the literature on scientific inquiry (de Jong et al., 2023; Zacharia et al., 2015), the IndagApp educational resource incorporates scaffolding to assist users. These sections, provided through a main character in the story, guide students throughout each scientific inquiry. They offer explanations and clarifications in the form of text or video (Fig. 4). For instance, a video is included in the main menu, providing a simple explanation of the inquiry cycle using student-friendly language. Another video is presented in the third phase, explaining the meaning of dependent, independent, and control variables with an accessible example. Additional instructions are provided in text format, such as guidance on formulating hypotheses and controlling variables. The integration of text in virtual simulations has proven beneficial for inquiry-based learning and knowledge acquisition (van der Graaf et al., 2020). It is essential to recognize that while the app aims to assist students, it is not intended for standalone use without teacher support. Instead, it is a classroom resource meant to be used under the teacher's guidance and following best practices for inquiry-based teaching (Aditomo & Klieme, 2020; de Jong et al., 2023; Pedaste et al., 2015; Toma, 2022b).

Fig. 4
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Example of scaffolding resources

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2.5 Cognitive load

Including unrelated concepts or a large amount of information in virtual simulations can present cognitive load or mental burden challenges for students (Ali et al., 2022). These extraneous elements can overload students' cognitive capacity and distract them from the core scientific concepts. For example, too much information and flashy or unnecessary animations may distract students' attention away from the intended learning outcomes. These distractions, also known as seductive details, provide irrelevant information that hinders instructional objectives and negatively impacts learning (Sundararajan & Adesope, 2020). According to a literature review on interactive laboratories for science education, existing resources “have various limitations and constraints including cognitive load/mental burden” (Ali et al., 2022, p. 28). To address this, IndagApp simulations were carefully designed to balance engaging features, such as avatars or attractive graphics adapted to students aged 10–14 years old, with curriculum alignment to optimize learning experiences (Sundararajan & Adesope, 2020). Additionally, the provided scaffolding aims to assist students in navigating and focusing on the essential scientific concepts within the simulations.

3 Methodology

3.1 Study design

This study used a convergent mixed methods design, as shown in Fig. 5 (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Quantitative and qualitative data were collected separately and analyzed. Findings were integrated to identify areas for improvement and guide future development efforts. The design aimed to comprehensively understand the usability of IndagApp. Quantitative data provided a general understanding using a gold-standard instrument against established cut-off values for usability, while qualitative data offered a more detailed explanation of the findings.

Fig. 5
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Diagram for convergent mixed-method design used in this study

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3.2 Participants and procedure

There are no established heuristics for usability testing. Testing with 3 to 5 participants is usually sufficient to identify major issues while testing with 10 participants can detect over 80% of usability problems (Lewis, 2014; Sauro & Lewis, 2016).

This study recruited 90 undergraduate pre-service teachers from the Spanish University of [anonymized] using convenience sampling (Cohen et al., 2018). Among them, 56.7% identified as female. The average age of the participants was 23.52 years (SD = 2.30). They were enrolled in a 4-year University degree for primary education teachers. The degree includes three mandatory science-related subjects that focus on science content and pedagogical content knowledge, particularly in physics, chemistry, biology, and geology. It also emphasized inquiry-based teaching methodology. The students were in their final course and already familiar with implementing inquiry methodology using lab resources and simulations, such as PhET Colorado.

Pre-service teachers assessed the usability of the IndagApp by individually testing two inquiry units on a desktop PC. The testing took place in a controlled environment during two-hour sessions, with no assistance provided. After completing the units, the students responded to usability questionnaires anonymously and confidentially.

3.3 Data collection source

For the quantitative strand of the research, the System Usability Scale (SUS, Brooke, 1996) was used, considered the gold standard for measuring subjective usability (Lewis, 2018). The questionnaire consists of 10 items and utilizes a Likert-type response format from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The Spanish version of the questionnaire was used (Del Rocio Sevilla-Gonzalez et al., 2020). The Cronbach's alpha coefficient (α = 0.88) revealed a high level of internal consistency reliability, consistent with previous research (Lewis, 2018; Vlachogianni & Tselios, 2022).

For the qualitative strand of the investigation, an open-ended questionnaire was used. Questions addressed both technological and pedagogical types of usability, as recommended in extant literature (Lu et al., 2022). Technological usability addressed how easy the app is to use and its visual appeal, while Pedagogical usability explored whether participants perceived IndagApp to be valuable for learning or professional development as prospective elementary school teachers. The questions related to technological usability were: (1) What challenges and difficulties have you faced while using IndagApp? (2) What improvements would facilitate or assist you in using IndagApp correctly? (3) What factors hindered your ability to use the app effectively? The questions addressing pedagogical usability were: (1) What benefits do you think using IndagApp could have for your professional development? (2) Regarding your science learning and training as a prospective elementary school teacher, what drawbacks do you perceive in IndagApp?

3.4 Data analysis

For the quantitative data, the SUS scoring method was used, which involves subtracting 1 from odd-numbered items and subtracting the participant's score from 5 for even-numbered items. The resulting scores are summed and multiplied by 2.5 to obtain a scale ranging from 0 to 100. Scores equal to or greater than 68 indicate adequate usability (Brooke, 2013). One multivariate outlier and seven univariate outliers were detected. These outliers exhibited values that were notably lower (e.g., M = 5) and were subsequently removed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The data satisfied the assumption of normality distribution, as evidenced by the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (D(82) = 0.08, p = 0.20). Similarly, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was met, as indicated by Levene's test (F (1, 80) = 2.25, p = 0.14). Therefore, a one-sample t-test compared whether the mean of the sample was equal to the minimum cut-off of 68, while a two-sample t-test compared scores between male and female students.

To provide a comprehensive interpretation of the quantitative findings about the usability of IndagApp, two additional scoring methods were used: Bangor et al.'s (2009) adjective scale, which classifies usability into seven categories ranging from worst imaginable to best imaginable, and Sauro and Lewis' (2016) grading scale, which categorizes usability into 11 categories from F to A + .

The qualitative data underwent directed content analysis (Cohen et al., 2018) using a predefined coding template based on themes derived from a comprehensive review of usability research in educational technology (Lu et al., 2022). By employing predefined themes, the analysis prioritized dimensions extensively discussed in the existing literature. In line with the open-ended questionnaire, the analysis focused on two dimensions: (1) Technological usability, which includes perceived ease of use, aesthetics, and system efficacy, and (2) Pedagogical usability, which addressed the satisfaction experienced while using the app, its pedagogical potential, and whether it includes support or guidance. Notably, all the data aligned with established codes, and no instances requiring the creation of new categories were found.

4 Results

4.1 Quantitative strand

The SUS yielded an average score of 82.13 (range: 53–100), surpassing the minimum threshold for usability significantly, t(81) = 12.04, p < 0.01, with a large effect size (d = 1.33). Analyzing individual items (Table 1), the lowest score was for "I think that I would need the support of a technical person to be able to use the app" while the highest score was for "I would imagine that most people would learn to use the app very quickly". There were no differences in SUS scores between males (M = 83.03, SD = 8.63) and females (M = 81.53, SD = 11.83), t(80) = 0.66, p = 0.51.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the system usability scale
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When examining the scores using the adjective scale of Bangor et al. (2009), high usability results are also observed (Table 2). None of the participants rated usability as the worst imaginable, awful, or poor. On the contrary, 36.6% of the participants rated it as excellent or the best imaginable.

Table 2 Usability results for Bangor et al. (2009) adjective scale
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Finally, when using the Sauro-Lewis (2016) scoring method for interpreting SUS mean scores, the usability results are likely satisfactory (Table 3). Specifically, 62.2% of the participants rated the application with the three highest ratings, while only 6.1% of the participants gave it a low rating. Taken together, the findings suggest that the usability of IndagApp is excellent and consistent across users’ genders and ages.

Table 3 Usability results for the Sauro-Lewis (2016) grading scale
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4.2 Qualitative strand

Findings from the open-ended questionnaires are organized below based on the six themes from the literature (Lu et al., 2022).

4.2.1 Theme #1: perceived ease of use

The comments made by participants indicate that IndagApp is easy to use (n = 34, 37.8%). Users have praised its simplicity, describing it as intuitive and straightforward. Its dynamic and user-friendly design allows users to navigate without complications and comprehend all functions. Student answers such as “It is simple and clear”, “I can use it without much explanation from the teacher” and “I found it quite easy” reinforce these notions. These comments highlight the positive user experience and suggest that IndagApp delivers an accessible learning experience.

Some students, however, faced difficulties understanding certain questions and graphs from the interpretation or conclusion phase (n = 14, 15.6%). These questions were often worded negatively, making it hard to answer them correctly. Some questions were also complex and ambiguous, leading to interpretation difficulties. They argued that: “In some questions, even if you know the answer, you can make a mistake because they are worded negatively”, “Negative wording in some questions that assess learning or your knowledge can be misleading”, “Some questions are very ambiguous” or “Some questions are difficult to answer with a simple Yes or No because I didn't understand them well”. Students also found it challenging to remember all the information from the results phase of the inquiry (n = 9, 10%): “I had difficulty recalling all the information. Without writing it down, it's challenging to remember everything and answer the interpretation questions. The same applies to graphs”.

4.2.2 Theme #2: aesthetics

Participants appreciated IndagApp's visual learning experience (n = 49, 54.4%). They also highlighted that the app enables them to easily observe experiments and better understand science concepts (n = 57, 63.33%), providing visual support and attractiveness that makes it more engaging than some real-world investigations (n = 35, 38.9%). Some comments include: “It is visually appealing”, “It is a highly visual tool; it allows you to easily see the experiments” or “It provides visual support and attractiveness where you can see the results and simulations of different experiments, which would be much less appealing in real life”. However, one student has mentioned that some simulations, like the one showing the formation of crystals, may not appear very realistic, which could affect the perception of authenticity.

4.2.3 Theme #3: system efficacy

Users had positive feedback regarding the integration of user interface features and the system's efficacy. The functionality and appropriateness of the different “buttons” were emphasized (e.g., font, color, and place within the user interface, n = 16, 17.8%). In terms of bugs, responses revealed that there were no major issues such as crashes or frozen screens. However, minor obstacles were identified. Negative comments included issues with internet connectivity and progress not being saved (n = 11, 12.2%). For example, one student experienced difficulty logging in: “I had trouble registering, but it was due to the poor internet connection”. Others signaled the loss of progress: “I was disconnected from the internet, and when I logged back in, the progress was not saved” or “The only difficulties I faced were related to the connection”.

4.2.4 Theme #4: satisfaction

Participants stated that the app is dynamic, playful, and visually engaging (n = 41, 45.56%). They also mentioned that it differs from other virtual labs, for the good (n = 5, 5.6%). Users appreciate making learning more enjoyable and interactive and stated that IndagApp is an effective way to engage with the inquiry teaching methodology (n = 14, 15.6%). They also noted potential benefits for elementary school students (n = 19, 21.1%), such as: “The use of gamification resources and simulations will allow elementary students to learn science in a fun and entertaining manner” and “The app provides an alternative to traditional pen-and-paper methods”. Overall, feedback underscored that IndagApp delivers a motivating and interactive approach to science education. Users emphasized that incorporating IndagApp into lesson plans may enhance engagement and facilitate an enjoyable learning experience.

However, feedback also indicated the presence of negative emotions among participants. Some users experienced stress and frustration when they encountered challenges and were unsure of how to proceed with certain phases of the inquiry unit (n = 9, 10%). Few participants stated that not knowing the answer may lead to demotivation since the app does not allow them to continue when making a mistake (n = 11, 12.2%). Additionally, some students reported feeling mentally drained when faced with difficulties in interpreting findings from graphs (n = 3, 3.3%). Comments from users included: “Not knowing what you did wrong can be stressful”, “It is frustrating when you are not allowed to progress until you know the correct answer”, "I felt a great mental burden when I was stuck in a phase until I found the answer” or “It can be demotivating at times, especially when it doesn't allow you to continue if you make a mistake, because it doesn't tell you what mistake you have made, so you have to keep guessing”.

4.2.5 Theme #5: pedagogical potential for professional development

IndagApp was reported to also have major educational potential for professional development in science education. Users responded that the app makes abstract science concepts more accessible, improving their subject content comprehension. Most comments indicated that the main educational benefits of the app are related to facilitating the understanding of the inquiry-based teaching approach (n = 36, 40%). For example, the comments highlight that: “It is great to learn the phases of an inquiry and how to conduct an inquiry investigation with students”, “It will help me to learn the different types of variables in an experiment”, "It is an ideal resource to learn how to design and inquiry unit and how to implement it” or “I consider it a good resource to understand and teach students to formulate research questions and hypothesis and to identify the dependent, independent, and control variables of an experiment”.

On the other hand, pre-service teachers also expressed interest in using IndagApp in upper elementary grades. They found it valuable for promoting scientific competence through Information Communication Technology and aligning with students' interests (n = 15, 16.67%). However, they noted some pedagogical limitations. Pre-service teachers mentioned that prior knowledge of scientific concepts and especially, scientific inquiry, is necessary for using the app effectively (n = 19, 21.11%). Participants recommended using IndagApp as a supplementary resource, not a substitute for theoretical explanations (n = 9, 10%). Comments included: “It is an app with many benefits as long as it is complementary and not a substitute for theoretical-lecture-based classes”, “The concepts are not explained in the app. I would need more information about the theory or explanation of the concepts to understand the inquiry better”, “I consider the app an interesting way to reinforce science content, but not enough to actually learn those concepts”, or "A previous explanation about the contents or the concepts included in the inquiry is highly necessary”.

4.2.6 Theme #6: support and guidance

IndagApp was commended for its effective use of scaffolding. Users stated that the app provided instructions and clear explanations, hel** them understand what they needed to do and how to proceed during the inquiry cycle (n = 27, 30%). Participants appreciated the guidance offered in each phase, which prevented them from overlooking essential steps or aspects of the inquiry investigation. The tutorials within the app were also mentioned to be useful (n = 7, 7.78%). Some of the comments included: "It was a guided and self-explanatory tool", "It guided me in what I had to do to complete the inquiry", "The video explained the inquiry procedure step by step in an easy-to-understand language", and "Even without the teacher's help, the app guided me through the fundamental steps or parts of the inquiry". Overall, comments from users emphasized that the text and video-based scaffolding and instructions included in the app simplified the learning process.

5 Discussion

Educators struggle to adopt inquiry-based approaches and create engaging, hands-on learning experiences that effectively promote scientific inquiry. Existing virtual lab simulations may facilitate the enactment of hands-on activities (Correia et al., 2019; Radhamani et al., 2021). However, existing resources often do not align with research-based inquiry procedures (Pedaste et al., 2015; Scalise et al., 2011) or generate cognitive load to users (Ali et al., 2022), limiting their potential to help teachers enact reform-oriented teaching practices.

Against this background, this study introduced IndagApp, an app designed to support inquiry-based science teaching. Unlike existing virtual laboratories that simulate only the data collection phase of research, such as PhET Colorado (Wieman et al., 2008) and ChemCollective (Yaron et al., 2010), IndagApp covers all the phases of scientific inquiry suggested by the literature. IndagApp offers ten inquiry-based teaching units, where students are scaffolded to complete the inquiry cycle of Pedaste et al., (2015), from research questions to knowledge application, through hypothesis generation, experimental design, and data simulation, collection, and interpretation. Usability testing of the app was conducted with pre-service elementary school teachers using a mixed-method convergent design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). The findings indicated positive outcomes in terms of usability, ease of use, aesthetics, system efficacy, satisfaction, pedagogical potential, and support and guidance offered by IndagApp (Lewis, 2018). Users appreciated the app's intuitive design, dynamic visual learning experience, and effective integration of user interface features. The system was stable with no major issues, although minor obstacles such as internet connectivity, occasional progress loss, and some design features needing improvement were identified.

5.1 Improvements made based on user feedback

Participants' responses provided valuable insights into the strengths and areas for improvement of IndagApp. To enhance participants' comprehension, the clarity and wording of questions were improved by avoiding negative or double-negative sentences. Also, the interface of graphs for each inquiry unit was modified for easier interpretation, as depicted in Fig. 6. Additionally, a student notebook was created to improve information recall and alleviate the burden of remembering details for each inquiry phase. Printable worksheets were also designed as materials to assist in collecting information at various stages of the inquiry cycle, including formulating research questions, recording results, and creating graphs. These materials can be accessed and printed from the project website (http://www.webciencia.es/).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Improvement of the interface of graphs and data interpretation. Note: The interface now includes a phase title at the top. The table uses colors to distinguish trials, and control variables are now presented separately. The graph is significantly enhanced for clearer data representation and result interpretation. Additionally, a new button allows users to repeat the experiment with different control variable data, allowing students to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between the variables

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To address internet connection issues, IndagApp now offers "guest" access. No account or connection is required to use the app. Progress as a guest is not saved, yet it allows inquiry sessions with unreliable internet. To reduce negative emotions, improvements include a pop-up window showing errors instead of just a sound notification. The revised version of the app now highlights the mistake made, without giving the correct answer. For instance, during the identification of experiment variables, the notification signals "Wrong. You have changed a control variable." to help users recognize their error.

Finally, it should be mentioned that participants' comments about not understanding the inquiry units due to lack of prior science knowledge were not addressed. As mentioned earlier, the app is intended for use by teachers implementing inquiry-based science teaching, rather than for individual student use. Personalized guidance, taking into account factors such as learning goals, domain, and prior knowledge, is considered more effective (de Jong et al., 2023). Consequently, theory or concept explanation was not included in the app, as universal guidelines are not practical, and educators are responsible for determining app usage in their specific teaching contexts.

5.2 Implications of this study

The findings of this study on IndagApp have several implications for science education and the integration of virtual resources in the classroom. The positive usability findings suggest that the integration of IndagApp into science classrooms can be done effectively. It is an easy-to-use and engaging resource that can effectively support inquiry-based science teaching. IndagApp is based on existing literature emphasizing information and communication technology’s role in improving learning experiences (Kolil & Achuthan, 2022; Raman et al., 2022). It also incorporates best practices for inquiry-based science units (Crawford, 2014; de Jong et al., 2023; Schwartz et al., 2023). Hence, incorporating IndagApp into science teaching practices may enhance the overall quality of science education by providing opportunities to engage in authentic scientific inquiry. Moreover, usability remains consistent across users' genders and ages, indicating that it has the potential to be an inclusive and accessible resource.

Another notable aspect is that IndagApp addresses one of the challenges of existing virtual laboratories and simulations, which is their limited coverage of all necessary steps in scientific inquiry or cognitive load (Ali et al., 2022; Scalise et al., 2011). In this sense, IndagApp covers all phases of the inquiry cycle, enabling exploration of real-world phenomena, formulation of research questions and hypotheses, understanding of experiment variables, data collection and analysis, and development of evidence-based conclusions (Pedaste et al., 2015). By addressing all the relevant phases of the inquiry teaching methodology, IndagApp engages users in a more comprehensive understanding of the inquiry cycle. Likewise, the app’s design minimized cognitive load by avoiding unnecessary information and visuals, while also providing scaffolding instructions.

Since the study was conducted with pre-service elementary school teachers, the findings have implications for teacher professional development programs. Incorporating resources like IndagApp in teacher training can equip future educators with effective tools for inquiry-based teaching and help them integrate technology into their instructional practices. Hence, IndagApp addresses challenges in accessing easy and ready-to-use inquiry-based resources (Aguilera et al., 2018; Baroudi & Helder, 2019; Chichekian et al., 2016). This finding is crucial for supporting teachers in enacting or engaging with inquiry-based teaching methodology.

5.3 Avenues for future research

Several suggestions for further research emerge from this study. Future investigations could explore the long-term impact of IndagApp on pre-service teachers' learning outcomes and professional development, such as their inquiry skills or their pedagogical content knowledge. Another promising area for investigation is examining the perceived usability of IndagApp in students aged 10–14 years old. Likewise, the influence of IndagApp on valued outcomes among elementary school students, such as conceptual understanding, development of positive attitudes, and scientific motivation is warranted (Aguilera & Perales-Palacios, 2020; Toma, 2021a, b). Similarly, additional research is necessary to determine the most effective implementation of IndagApp. For example, examining the synergistic effects of combining virtual simulations with hands-on experiments or collaborative learning approaches would provide valuable insights (Manyilizu, 2022). Recent studies support these efforts, showing that combining virtual laboratories with demonstration methods improves scientific literacy (Lestari et al., 2023), and that a blend of lab resources and virtual laboratories has a significant impact on achievement (Hurtado-Bermúdez & Romero-Abrio, 2023). Finally, future studies should translate and test the usability of IndagApp in other languages. This would make it available for non-Spanish speakers and contexts; hence, it would also increase its reach, impact, and adoption in different educational settings. These research directions for IndagApp are worth considering to advance evidence for the usefulness of this educational resource.

5.4 Limitations

This study has limitations. It relied on controlled, lab-based usability testing, which may not reflect real-world engagement with the app. Thus, valuable insights about IndagApp in authentic settings (i.e., elementary classrooms) may have been missed. Additionally, the study focused on a specific group of pre-service teachers with inquiry teaching experience, limiting the generalizability of the results. Including a more diverse sample in further studies is warranted to explore its usability with novice users regarding inquiry methodologies. Furthermore, potential implementation challenges and barriers to using IndagApp in elementary school classes, such as teacher training, technical infrastructure, and resource availability, were not explicitly addressed. Future research should investigate these factors to offer practical guidance for educators regarding how to best use IndagApp in classrooms.

6 Conclusions

This study focused on designing and evaluating an app called IndagApp for inquiry-based science teaching. Pre-service elementary school teachers found the app highly usable and expressed potential benefits from using it. The study also incorporated feedback to improve the app, resulting in its final version. Notably, IndagApp is the first app that covers all required inquiry phases in science education literature. Considering the need for reform-oriented resources aligned with the new educational reform (LOMLOE, 2020), the app is made freely available. Therefore, this research is both timely and significant. Further research is needed to explore the impact of using IndagApp on outcomes such as conceptual understanding, learning retention, and the development of positive attitudes and motivation in science.