Introduction

Packaging generally refers to products to be used for containment, protection, handling, delivery and presentation of goods from the producer to the user [1]. Although packaging plays an important role in protecting goods when they move through the economy cycle, packaging waste is among the biggest causes of environmental deterioration [2]. In the UK, while plastics are the most widely used packaging material, only 46.2% of plastic packaging is recycled [3]. New Plastics Economy in 2019 identifies that only 9% of plastics packaging worldwide is currently recycled, 40% is buried in landfill and over 30% is left in nature which is causing further or even permanent damage to the earth ecosystems that are already very fragile [4]. The traditional ‘take-make-dispose’ linear consumption model has been accused as the major cause of such damage and fragility as packaging is initially designed to be produced, consumed and disposed of.

Given the detrimental environmental impact, policy-makers demand packaging to be designed, manufactured, consumed and recycled in a more sustainable way. For example, the European Union’s (EU) Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP) and the UK government’s Circular Economy Package (CEP) in 2020 emphasise an urgent need for packaging design to drive sustainable growth. Stronger voices require packaging to be designed in a more sustainable way and to take the circular economy (CE) approach through which resources would be kept in closed loops and generate zero waste [5, 6].

Design is generally considered a decisive element in the packaging value chain as it determines the materials to be used, defines the manufacturing operations to be implemented and determines the end-of-life options. Up to 80% of environmental impacts are determined at the design stage [7]. Packaging development towards a CE requires proper design, which takes into considerations regulations, policies, business implications and the application of materials and then enables them to be translated into packaging that can be effectively used, reused, repurposed or recycled [8].

While recent publications related to circular packaging design have increased rapidly, the majority of them are heavily focused on theoretical development of the design process related to CE, and very few attentions are given to develo** a holistic framework for the circular design process that is practically feasible for designers. Therefore, this study aims to develop a comprehensive ‘Design for Circular Packaging (DfCP)’ framework for packaging industry, based on pioneer circular design practice in industry. The developed framework specifically addresses the design guidance and considerations for develo** CE-oriented packaging design solutions.

Literature Review

To create a health and sustainable ecosystem for a bright future of the earth and creature, the concept of the circular economy was proposed, that is, a systemic approach to a regenerative economic development which benefits businesses, society and the environment [9, 10]. The fundamental notion of a circular economy is a closed loop where resources are used, reused and recycled while creating additional values throughout the multiple life cycles [11]. Goods towards their end of service life are turned into resources for others, forming a closed loop, whereby minimising waste [12, 13]. Packaging undoubtedly plays an essential part of our daily lives and the packaging industry contributes significantly to the economic growth [14]. In recent years, research on packaging design has become increasingly popular along with the emerging concept of CE [14,15,16]. The area of interest can be broadly classed into three categories including material selection and development, design process innovation and development of tools for design validation.

Material Selection

Biodegradable, reusable and recyclable materials are preferred by packaging designers [17, 18]. It is noted that one of the fundamental CE principles is reuse and recycling; therefore, it is recommended that materials that are durable, which can withstand multiple reuse and cleaning, and recyclable should be given more attention in the material selection stage. Research has primarily been focused on understanding the properties of materials that have been recycled [19, 20]. Hahladakis and Iacovidou [21] urged designers and engineers to understand the materials and mechanical properties of packaging plastics, which may gradually deteriorate after multiple uses or reprocessing. For example, Vilaplana and Karlsson [22] found that the elastic modulus of polypropylene (PP) decreased after reprocessing, indicating the material becomes less elastic and more brittle. The quality of PP packaging was also found to be negatively affected by repeated washing [14], whereas for high-density polyethylene, mechanical properties remain almost unchanged in multiple reprocessing cycles [23], making it a better material than PP in terms of recyclability. In recent years, microbial biodegradable biopolymers and agro materials were found to be eco-friendlier types of packaging materials for a resilient packaging circular economy [24]. Elsacker et al. [25] reviewed the state-of-the-art in the development of mycelium-based materials and the production methods of sha** them into packaging materials. Sadh et al. [26] demonstrated the feasibility of making and using lightweight aggregates from agricultural residues for tertiary or transit packaging. Engel et al. [27] tested the viability of using foams made of starch and grape stalks for storage of foods in a low moisture content. In addition, it should be mentioned that designers’ choices on materials are also greatly influenced by existing directives and regulation related to packaging and packaging waste (e.g. to use 100% reusable or recyclable packaging by 2030 in Europe [28]; the use of recycled materials in new packages [28, 29]).

Packaging Design Process

Upon selecting appropriate materials, a number of creative packaging design concepts will be generated, which will be further developed and finalised. In the conceptual design phase, designers are suggested to consider reusable packaging and minimise multi-material usage and logistics-related factors. A general guideline is that the number of materials used in the packaging should be kept as minimal [30]. Leissner and Ryan-Fogarty [31] examined plastic packaging waste of single-use infant formula bottles in Irish maternity hospitals. It was suggested that the variety of materials used should be reduced to facilitate the recycling process. Eriksen and Astrup [32] recommended to design individual and separable components, such as modular design, in which case, components made from multi-polymers can be separated and sorted during recycling.

Trade-offs need to be well-balanced between reusable and single-use packaging in terms of material production and disposal of single-use materials and increased transport of reusable packaging [33]. Mahmoudi and Parviziomran [34] analysed the factors that affect the impact of reusable packaging on economics and environment. Return rates, transport distances, difficulties and costs in sorting, cleaning and maintenance were found to negatively affect the benefits of employing usable packaging if either one of the above factors increases. Gardas et al. [35] identified the factors for reusable plastic packaging to be successful, of which reduction in packaging waste, reduced expenses of transportation, packaging and waste management and effective utilisation of a warehouse space are directly linked to a successful circular packaging design. However, research has also shown negative environmental impacts of using reusable packaging as a result of increased complexity in logistics. For example, using reusable packaging reduces waste but increases CO2 emissions in frequent transportation [14]. While the transportation distances cannot be changed, packaging should be reconfigurable to maximum its capacity to accommodate more items in one transport [36]. Kuo et al. [37] conducted a case study where the ship** boxes were redesigned to be reconfigurable. Gardas et al. [35] further pointed out that the reduction of transportation cost could be achieved by modularity of packaging and standardisation of the practices.

In the design development phase, designers focus more on the functionality of the packaging, adopting modular design method while promoting circular economy concept [38]. Modular design has been found to facilitate separating and sorting different materials, which avoids substantial degradation of recycled materials [32, 39]. In the case study conducted by Neiro et al. [40] on the life cycle of Carlsberg’s can packaging for beverage, it was revealed that designing the body and lids to be easily separated could increase the recyclability of the can, particularly in multiple closed recycling loops. In addition, the study by Steenis [41] revealed that consumers are more willing to purchase products that seem to be good for environment. Therefore, it is important for designers to embed the CE concept into the packaging design, which can clearly convey the positive effects of the packaging to the environment [41, 42]. Lofthouse et al. [43] strongly advised that the idea of circular economy such as using refillable packaging for body wash products should be clearly communicated to consumer. The studies by Steenis et al. [44] and Lambert and Wagner [45] revealed that consumers are willing to pay extra for sustainable packaging.

Tools for Design Validation

With respect to design validation, a handful number of tools for CE such as life cycle analysis (LCA) tools have been developed, which can be used to help designers perform rigorous validation. LCA along with other qualitative tools could also provide useful information to better inform designers’ decisions on material selection and products’ recyclability. It was found that the selection of materials has a significant impact on the carbon footprint and end-of-life recyclability [46]. For example, different materials have different carbon footprints in material production and transportation. The material properties can also affect the carbon footprint in packaging production as well as the recycling options (e.g. mechanical and chemical methods) and the required associated energy consumption during recycling [47]. Ligthart et al. [48] developed an LCA-based tool to assess the environmental impact, waste generation and resource usage. Sehnem et al. [49] developed a list of indicators for the evaluation of environmental impacts of a packaging design, such as material toxicity and biodiversity. Lofthouse et al. [43] presented an ‘eco-indicator’ table focusing on three aspects: production; transportation; and landfill and recycling. Neiro et al. [40] developed a framework consisting of LCA and Cradle-to-Cradle certification programme. Niero and Hauschild [50] examined the material circularity indicator. The recycled content of the material and recycling rate as well as efficiency of recycling were found to be the primary factors in the circular packaging design. However, Millet et al. [51] pointed out that LCA is not an adequate and one-stop tool for designers due to its utility in the design process being constrained in the final design stage. In other words, it is limited to an analysis of existing products or well-defined products at the final stages of the design process.

Methodology

As the nature of the research question directs towards the understanding of a phenomenon and its current context, qualitative methods therefore were adopted to explore complex issues in multiple facets of the phenomena [52]. Consequently, the research methodology consisted of the following two stages:

Stage 1: In-Depth Interviews

In-depth interviews were adopted to explore the current circular design practice in industry. Professional designers were first sought through the partners of this research project, meeting the following selection criteria: (1) the designer works in the packaging industry or packaging team of a firm; (2) the designer has successfully developed packaging products towards circular economy; and (3) the circular packaging has been sold/used on the market. In addition, through initial communications via emails, nine senior professional designers with over 5 years of packaging design experience as well as management experience were identified for the in-depth interviews, which also allowed the researchers to explore management aspects in the design process. The details of the informants are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1 The informants of the in-depth interviews
Full size table

A semi-structured format was applied as it allowed exploration of complex issues with a possible probe into further information and clarification [53]. Each interview lasted between 80 and 100 min. The interview protocol was developed prior to the interviews to specifically explore the following five major areas: (1) circular packaging design solutions; (2) circular packaging design guidance and rules; (3) circular design process; (4) difficulties and barriers in develo** a circular packaging design; and (5) stakeholders’ perspectives and impact on the circular packaging design process. All the interviews were recorded and transcribed into more than 93,000 words of text-based data, which was coded and analysed through QSR NVivo software. An initial ‘Design for Circular Packaging (DfCP)’ framework for packaging industry was developed based upon the in-depth interviews. To validate the findings, the initial framework was then demonstrated to the interviewees to obtain their feedback.

Stage 2: Expert Workshop

To enrich and refine the DfCP framework, an expert workshop was organised, where eight packaging experts from government, charities, industry and academia participated and contributed their insights. All participants invited had expert knowledge and work experience of packaging towards circular economy. The workshop lasted for about 200 min and transcribed into around 19,000 words of text-based data, which was analysed to refine and complement the DfCP framework and the research findings. The details of the participants are summarised in Table 2.

Table 2 The participants of the expert workshop
Full size table

Along with the interviews and workshops, secondary data including publicly available information and data from official websites was also collected to support the research analysis.

Results

Derived from the empirical evidence, a comprehensive DfCP framework for packaging industry is developed, as shown in Fig. 1, with detailed illustrations in the following sections.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The DfCP framework for packaging industry

Full size image

CE Packaging Concept

A feasible circular packaging design often originates from an innovative concept. A number of concepts that enable circular packaging were found through the interviews, which were ‘disappear concept’, ‘naked product concept’, ‘waste regeneration concept’, ‘packaging as a product concept’ and ‘reuse and recycling concept’.

The ‘disappear concept’ essentially means the packaging will disappear after the product is consumed. Natural materials are popular options as they can easily biodegrade in a reasonable timescale or are edible by consumers. A typical example is that in events or festivals such as London marathons in 2018, liquid was packed into sachets that were consumed for hydration. ‘Naked product concept’ means that the product does not require packaging, such as soaps and cosmetics, which fundamentally eliminates the unnecessary plastic waste.

That is the direction the company is going in, in that it wants to get away from packaging completely, and what they call naked products, i.e. a product that doesn't need any packaging at all has to be the answer. (Interview ID-9)

Pioneering work has been undertaken to regenerate packaging from waste. Successful examples were shown during the interviews. For instance, Jujube pits, which are usually thrown away as waste, are now reprocessed and used to make packaging for jujubes. Used plastic cups are turned into protection cases for mobile phones. Another innovation in circular packaging concept is to design the packaging to be used as a new product with an additional functionality. An example was shown by an interviewee where the snack packaging made from paper was designed to be able to unfold to serve as a tray for the snacks. In addition to the innovative concepts, reuse and recycling concepts are the mainstream concepts in the circular economy. It was suggested by a few interviewees that the packaging was designed to be reused for over 20 times at least for the scenario where a package is returned by a user and will then be redistributed and used by another user. If a package is not suitable for reuse, recycling is an alternative option, but this requires not only the materials being widely recyclable but also well-established recycling infrastructure that minimises the impact of transporting packaging materials to be recycled.

Material Selection

Results showed a number of factors to consider and balance in the material selection stage. The most frequently mentioned factors included material properties and cost. Surprisingly, environment-related factors (e.g. recyclability and biodegradability) are considered to be less important as compared to the above two factors. However, this is also understandable as the nature of packaging is to securely protect the product while minimising the cost [54]. In order to make a sensible decision on selecting materials that have a low negative environmental impact, life cycle assessment is usually performed.

The material we have selected was based on a lifecycle assessment. During the lifecycle we gathered the data. For instance, how many emissions are going to what’s producing the material? You gather this information and you compare it with different selections of materials. And then we selected the ones that had the lowest, for instance, carbon emissions. (Interview ID-4)

It was also highlighted that the preference should be given to transparent plastics over coloured plastics. Black plastics should be avoided as they had the lowest recycling value. To facilitate recycling process, variety of materials used was suggested to be kept minimum. For special applications such as food packaging, regulations should be followed, e.g. using Food and Drugs–approved materials. All interview participants agreed that it is important for a packaging designer to gain a decent technical understanding of materials. Over 50% of the participants have the experience of testing new materials they chose in a real production and examining the performance in practice. However, it was repeatedly reported that designers have to seek advice from material specialists. A participant emphasised the importance of establishing a robust material list. The company that the participant worked in developed such a list of preferred and not preferred materials, which have been proved to be highly effective as a reference for designers.

Design Process

The design process is generally discussed in three stages, i.e. beginning stage, middle stage and end stage. In the circular design practice, the beginning stage considers environmental impact and ecological aspect early when develo** specific packaging concepts. End-of-life options may be reviewed and entire life cycle of the packaging would be indicated. The LCA may be conducted at the beginning stage of design to forecast the impact to the environment, upon which the packaging concept design is refined and validated.

…from the beginning of the design process when we had the first idea, we described the forms and materials. You need to make the LCA, definitely. From the beginning you get some raw numbers. Our firm gets more better solution than the classical shop** solutions after completing and comparing the initial calculations in LCA. So we then continued develo** the concept… (Interview ID-8)

Once the design concepts have been defined and selected, prototypes would be developed and tested in a pilot project with users in the middle stage of the design process. At this stage, it is important to understand how users would behave and how they would interact with the packaging, which are critical to packaging circularity. It is not always necessary to use the real materials to produce the prototypes at this stage as long as it demonstrates the form and basic functions of the packaging which allow the users to interact and comment. By the end stage of the design process, iteration brings the final prototypes to be tested. Production methods need to be analysed based on the environmental impact with the considerations on supply chain and logistics. A rigorous LCA would be conducted to assess the packaging against the environmental criteria.

…by the end of the design process you would decide production methods and think about for example how a plastic bottle is produced. How is it done? You first make a pre-form, which is injection moulded and then you blow mould it. So it’s like two processes and you can calculate how much the environmental impact is of this process versus something that you would like to use that might have a lower environmental impact. That’s also a decision you can do during the design process. We have considered it during the analysis of the production process basically… (Interview ID-4)

Manufacturing Techniques and Costs

It goes without emphasising the importance of considering feasible manufacturing techniques in packaging design. Designers are in a unique position to decide which production methods to use, whereby optimise the environmental impact during production. However, they now face increasing challenges in circular packaging design. Recycled materials have different material properties, usually resulting in a lower production rate and an increased cost. Manufacturing firms tend to use standardised parameters that can guarantee reliable and predictable product quality and throughput. However, the packaging that uses a new material, such as seaweed, will incur a higher cost in pre-production and production. In some cases, no existing production method is suitable and significant investment will be needed.

There was not a manufacturing process that was existing that will make our product, so we have to invent the machinery to do so. So basically, what we do, we start with our paste of seaweed that we somehow extrude into a tubular shape and create the product around…It is a custom machine. So the challenge of us making the machine have been quite big. Not only to make that prototype or to make the first machines, but to make them reliable… (Interview ID-2)

In addition to the costs involved in production, other costs should also be factored in. Recycling expenses generally are higher than the linear consumption model where virgin materials are used, consumed and disposed of. There are sometimes significant costs associated with logistics where reused and recycled packaging is transported in a long logistic chain. Designers are urged to ensure the packaging circularity is compatible with the local, national or international infrastructure.

Business Models Generation

To achieve circularity, business models need to be closely aligned with packaging design as design can facilitate business models centred on specific circular approaches, e.g. sharing and re-using materials, and in return business models support packaging design to achieve business value in the economic flow. Therefore, business models should be developed from very early stage together with packaging concept development, both of which can be planned at the original point and ensured the alignment between them across the whole process.

Circular Design Guidance

Follow Regulations

Packaging policy and regulation enacted by governments and regulators have played an important role in sha** the packaging industry. Although packaging should keep the same brand image in different countries, packaging used in Europe may not exactly be the same as the one used in the USA as it might subject to different requirements, e.g. recyclability and size. Understanding and following specific packaging regulations allow packaging designers and firms to define the boundary of their design work and therefore accommodate expectations of different markets.

Easy to Clean

To enhance circularity, packaging design, especially for reuse and remanufacturing purposes, needs to consider the ease of the cleaning process. The form of packaging would significantly influence the cleaning process and thereby design professionals need to consider this guidance when starting conceptual design process, e.g. avoid narrow necks or blind corners in packaging design.

Clear Instructions Through Branding

Packaging is an important carrier of the brand image, either through the form of the packaging or the messages carried with it. To achieve the user engagement for circularity, packaging needs to deliver clear communications and instructions to the users, e.g. how to reuse or recycle the packaging.

…If in the design process you know that you’ve reduced a particular amount of material volume or have used a particular material, that means it can composted or recycled or disposed of in a particular way, or perhaps has a second use at home. That is something which needs to be communicated clearly to engage with the user. Before they’ve even picked up the packaging or product, what do they know to do with it, how do they engage with it. I’ve done a fair bit of work on looking at how best to communicate recycling, recycle icons, all that kind of messaging within brands and in line with a particular brand. And also retailers, because they can be quite restrictive on that. (Interview ID-7)

Consider End-of-Life Options Before Designing

End-of-life options provide the approaches of how to achieve circularity of packaging, which therefore should be leveraged before starting specific design tasks. They may serve as a part of a design specification, following which the designers may consider the entire life cycle of packaging to achieve circular design.

Green Production

One of the most important design decisions made by designers is the selection of production technologies, which will influence the environmental impact of the production process. To achieve a green production, designers should carefully consider the production methods which may help minimise the wastes and optimise the environmental impact.

Circular Design Rules

To enhance circularity, various design rules have been derived and generated in Table 3.

Table 3 Circular design rules
Full size table

Challenges in Develo** Circular Packaging

The challenges in develo** a circular packaging design were discussed. User acceptance was highlighted as there have been preconceived but sometimes misleading views on recycled materials. For example, recycled materials are usually linked with low quality and bad performance in the public. In food packaging industry, people tend not to choose recycled materials due to hygiene concerns. Moreover, ‘convenience’ is valued more than many other factors from the consumers’ perspective, meaning that returnable, refillable and recyclable packaging is not always favourable. The slow pace of the recycling industry in develo** mature recycling technologies and actively engaging with packaging designers is another factor trailing behind the transition from linear to circular packaging. On top of this, high recycling and logistic costs also place a significant challenge for designers. Another interesting aspect to mention is brand image. Premium brands tend to use luxury packaging that usually comes with a unique surface texture, which however makes the packaging difficult to recycle. In addition to the above, a clear and simple communication is needed to convey the complex message of the packaging’s functionality, appearance and circular economy to users. This requires the concept of circular economy to be, ideally, visually embedded in the packaging design.

The company’s brand image also makes it [recycling] very difficult… For example, I’ll go back to the print finishes, but if they’re a very premium brand, you’re kind of expected to design some quite high quality luxury packaging, if you like, which will inadvertently carry quite advanced finishes which may limit sustainability. I think they’re probably the biggest constraints I can think of. (Interview ID-9)

Designer’s Knowledge

Knowledge of materials and processing technologies is acknowledged by most of the professional designers involved in this study as the fundamental knowledge that designers should obtain. During the design process, designers make direct decisions on selecting packaging materials and processing technologies, which would have a huge impact on the environment in terms of recycling and production.

I do have some grip on some elements of material, and I think it’s very important to understand it, because it does direct you with particular design decisions. And it’s great to know that early on in the design process because it can be a very big constraint. (Interview ID-6)

Although all designers mentioned that the knowledge of circular economy was generally learned through websites, social media and industry visits, it is inessential to have profound knowledge of circular economy or circularity. Circularity of product can be as a kind of specific requirements in the design specification and then can be further explored. However, firms and designers should have the ‘mindset of circularity’ when designing packaging and envision its potential impacts on people and environment.

Stakeholders’ Perspectives

There is no doubt that to expedite the transition from linear towards circular packaging, not only packaging designers but also stakeholders from a wider scope need to contribute. Governments are expected to drive the circular economy development and facilitate industries and consumers to adopt the CE mindset. An excellent initiative is the Deposit and Return Scheme launched by the Scottish Government [55] to motivate producers, retailers and consumers to take part in the development of a circular economy.

From a government perspective I would say there definitely needs to be more some kind of restriction, also more, I would say more resource. So some kind of funding or more resource into what we can put into the design process to achieve these efforts… Having a level of restriction could be quite good. So saying that you can’t [sic] use particular finishes on particular large items maybe or particular products or yeah [sic], there should definitely be some more firm restrictions I would say. At the minute it seems quite flexible. (Interview ID-1)

It is important that consumers are motivated from an ethical standpoint, but more critically, industries, in particular senior management level within a company, are committed to develo** circular packaging solutions, which are underpinned by the enforcement brought in by the policy-makers.

Discussion

This study focused on understanding the circular packaging design practice, starting from CE concept generation, through material selection to the design process. It was found that using biodegradable materials has become a general guidance in selecting packaging materials in practice. Most of the designers attending the interviews expressed an urgent need to have a wider availability of new biodegradable materials. However, it is worth noting that biodegradable materials, particularly biodegradable plastics, do not necessarily mean ‘good for the environment’ [19, 45, 56]. Unfortunately, the designers in the interviews were not fully aware of this. The biodegradation can only take place on prevailing conditions rather than naturally decompose at a home environment or in a reasonable time scale [57]. Some interviewees were conscious of the fact that biodegradable plastics are not always compostable and ecological in the end and are likely to cause more problems in recycling. This requires synergies across different industry sectors, investing new and economically viable ways to recycle materials.

Half of the interviewees were of the opinion that the reuse concept should be a preferred model in the circular economy as it does not involve costly and complicated recycling processes. However, when conceiving of a reusable packaging design, another layer of complexity should be considered, that is the reuse and return model will have to be compatible with the logistic infrastructure. Return locations should be easily accessible to consumers, such as local retail stores. Two interviewees found that consumers are reluctant to return the used packaging if additional travels or costs are needed. They also urged designers to perform a thorough analysis on the environmental impact as it is possible that ship** packages back and redistributing for a new reuse loop could produce more carbon footprint, making the reusable packaging less sustainable. At present, there is a lack of consideration in end-of-life options for reusable packaging. The interview results showed that the reusable packaging is designed to be used multiple times but there are limits for the materials to be reusable at a good condition, and unavoidably at a certain point, it will start to degrade. Solutions for handling end-of-life packages will need to be addressed.

There were three chief designers in the interview that were in the company’s management level. They acknowledged that business models should be developed along with the packaging design. Circularity requires design that accounts for regulations, policies, consumer preferences and strategic implications to create packaging products that can be more effectively used, reused, repurposed or recycled in society. Business model development must be accompanied by a change in the way products are designed, to align with changed priorities, specifications and technical skills. More than simply a change in how businesses make money, it reflects how value is created and demands change in operations. The synergy and alignment between design and business model therefore should be considered strategically from the beginning of the design process or even before the start of the specific design.

Transition from linear to circular packaging requires change of behaviour not only from the consumer point of view but also from the company point of view. In comparison to technical challenges in develo** a circular packaging design, the unwillingness to adopt the circular packaging mindset has become one of the main barriers, as highlighted by two interviewees. For companies, especially international companies, there is usually a long logistic chain with different stakeholders involved. Switching to a new material will cause disruptions on the existing supply chain, sometimes requiring additional significant investment. This study revealed that designers are largely constrained to a narrow range of materials simply due to the fact that choosing other materials can lead to complications associated with supply chains. It makes sense that policy-makers and senior management teams within a company can help to facilitate the development of circular packaging. The European Union has launched a number of regulations to push governments to work more on sustainable design [1]. However, it appears that these regulations might not have been well filtered through. The professional designers who participated in this study mentioned that they have not been encouraged to design circular packaging in the company and sustainability is more a self-inflicted encouragement from themselves. Therefore, enforcement from governments and commitment from the company’s management level are necessary to make a real change on the current packaging design practice.

This study provides a holistic view of the circular packaging design process starting from concept generation, material selection, to manufacturing stages, whereas other studies reported in the literature are largely focused on a specific stage such as material selection. The findings of this study are more practical and empirical as the data was collected from practitioners in different companies working on different packaging products. This is different to other studies where more fundamental scientific research was focused (e.g. in the material selection [19, 20]) or case study focused (e.g. in the design process [31]). This study identified useful and practical CE packaging concepts including ‘disappear concept’, ‘naked product concept’, ‘waste regeneration concept’, ‘packaging as a product concept’ and ‘reuse and recycling concept’, some of which were not found in the literature. In addition to differences, there are also similarities. A typical example is material selection where reusable, recyclable and biodegradable materials are preferred. Another example is, in the design process, a general guideline to minimise the number of materials used which will facilitate recycling [30]. In addition, if appropriate, packaging can be designed to consist of individual and separable components, which could also effectively facilitate the recycling of end-of-life packaging products [32].

Conclusions

Packaging waste is among the biggest causes of environmental deterioration. Given the current, detrimental environmental impact, policy-makers demand packaging to be designed, manufactured, consumed and recycled in a more sustainable way. The transition to circular packaging requires a systemic change, while packaging design is generally considered a decisive element in the process. This research investigated the design guidance and considerations along the design process for develo** CE-oriented packaging design solutions. The DfCP framework has been developed to guide firms, R&D teams and designers with major design considerations explored, allowing firms and design practitioners to focus on critical design issues when develo** sustainability-oriented innovation. Although the DfCP provides a general guidance to industry, individual firm and the firm designers should consider its own feasibility and packaging features to implement it.