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The Role of Uttaramandrā-Gāthā in the Aśvamedha: Ancient Evidence of Music for Psychological Stress

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Abstract

Music in the Uttaramandrā-gāna or Gāthā-gāna is an integral part of the Aśvamedha rite. In the rite, the king transferred authority to a priest for a year, and we propose that to help him deal with the resultant psychological stress, two musicians sang valorous and uplifting songs to the accompaniment of vīṇā. Thus, Uttaramandrā worked as a music therapy, and using this as the basis, we present an outline of a fourfold therapeutic model with reference to the Rasa theory of Indian aesthetics, Ayurvedic principles, and ancient accounts of musicology.

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Notes

  1. See Kāṇva Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 15.1.5 in Swaminathan, 2015

  2. It must be understood that the main ritual of Aśvamedha happens if the ritualistic horse comes back within 1 year. For this 1 year, a king must take Niyama, a vow, where he should declare that he would perform the Aśvamedha. Initiation, Dīkṣā, for the main ritual, happens after 1 year if the horse comes. This is the difference between an initiated king and a king with a vow, a votary.

  3. See TB, 3.9.14.1 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [apa vā etasmācchrī rāṣṭraṃ krāmati / yo'śvamedhena yajate]

  4. See Vedārthaprakāśa, commentary on TB by Sāyaṇa, p.1286 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [kratusamāptiparyantam adhvaryoḥ eva rājatvāt / rāṣṭram api asmād apagacchati]

  5. ibid p. 1285 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [niyamaṃ svīkṛtavataḥ rājñaḥ cirakālaṃ rājopacārābhāvena śrīḥ asmād apagacchati]

  6. See TB, 3.9.14.1 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [śriyā vā etadrūpam / yadvīṇā / śriyamevāsmin taddhattaḥ / yadā khalu vai puruṣaḥ śriyamaśnute / vīṇā’smai vādyate /]

  7. See TB, 3.9.14.2 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [brāhmaṇo’nyo gāyet / rājanyo’nyaḥ /]

  8. See Vedārthaprakāśa of Sāyaṇācārya p.1287 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [tatra divase sāvitrīṣṭisambandhinaḥ sviṣṭakṛtaḥ purā brāhmaṇena gātavyam arthaṃ darśayati]

  9. Ibid [atha sāyandhṛtiṣu hūyamānāsu rājanyena gātavyam arthaṃ darśayati]

  10. See TB, 3.9.14.4 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [tisro’nyo gāyati tisro’nyaḥ / ṣaṭtsampadyante /]

  11. See TB, 3.9.14.3-4 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [ityadadā ityayajathā ityapaca iti brāhmaṇo gāyet / iṣṭāpūrtaṃ vai brāhmaṇasya / iṣṭāpūrtenaivainaṃ sa samardhayati]

  12. See TB, 3.9.14.4 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) [itya**ā ityayudhyathā ityamuṃ saṅgrāmamahanniti rājanyaḥ / yuddhaṃ vai rājanyasya / yuddhenaivainaṃ sa samardhayati]

  13. See SB, 13.4.2.8 (in ed. Brāhmaṇam, 1970) [brāhmaṇo vīṇāgāthī dakṣiṇata’uttaramandrāmudāghnaṃstisraḥ svayaṃ sambhṛtā gāthā gāyatītyayajatetyadadād iti tasyoktaṃ brāhmaṇam]

  14. Ibid [brāhmaṇo vīṇāgāthī dakṣiṇata’uttaramandrāmudāghnaṃstisraḥ svayaṃ sambhṛtā gāthā gāyatītyayajatetyadadād iti tasyoktaṃ brāhmaṇam]

  15. See Caraka Saṃhitā, 1.1.57

  16. See Mahābhārata, 14.11.5 (2072 Saṃvat)

  17. See Mahābhārata, 14.11.18ab (2072 Saṃvat) [tasya vṛtragṛhītasya mohaḥ samabhavanmahān]

  18. See Suśruta Saṃhitā, 3.1.18 (with the Nibandha-saṅgraha commentary of Ḍalhaṇa) [SS text: tāmasāstu viṣāditvaṃ nāstikyamadharmaśīlatā buddhernirodho’jñānaṃ durmedhastvamakarmaśīlatā nidrālutvaṃ ceti //; Commentary: viṣādo’syāstīti viṣādī, tadbhāvo viṣāditvaṃ mūḍhatā /; here the word viṣāditva is synonymous with mūḍhatā (word from same verbal root √muh), perplexity.]

  19. Knowledge of a subject evokes thus: a matter connects with its sense, sense connects to the mind, and the mind connects to ātman. Buddhi, exquisitely, is defined as niścayātmakāntaḥ-karaṇa-vṛtti, a power/force of mind which leads us to gain accurate (niścaya) understanding. Hence, if the buddhi factor is absent, accurate understanding cannot be happened.

  20. Mahābhārata, 14.11.19 (2072 Saṃvat)

  21. Ibid, 14.12.12-16 [manasaikena yoddhavyaṃ tatte yuddhamupasthitam // tasmādabhyupagantavyaṃ yuddhāya bharatarṣabha / paramavyaktarūpasya pāraṃ yuktyā svakarmabhiḥ // yatra naiva śaraiḥ kāryaṃ na bhṛtyairna ca bandhubhiḥ / ātmanaikena yoddhavyaṃ tatte yuddhamupasthitam // tasminnanirjite yuddhe kāmavasthāṃ gamiṣyasi / etajjñātvā tu kaunteya kṛtakṛtyo bhaviṣyasi // etāṃ buddhiṃ viniścitya bhūtānāmāgatiṃ gatim / pitṛpaitāmahe vṛtte śādhi rājyaṃ yathocitam //]

  22. indriyeṇendriyārtho hi samanaskena gṛhyate / kalpyate manasā tūrdhvaṃ guṇato doṣato’thavā // jāyate viṣaye tatra yā buddhirniścayātmikā / vyavasyati tayā vaktuṃ kartuṃ vā buddhipūrvakam //

  23. sāttvikāstu ānṛśaṃsyaṃ saṃvibhāgarucitā titikṣā satyaṃ dharma āstikyaṃ jñānaṃ buddhirmedhā smṛtirdhṛtiranabhiṣaṅgaśca

  24. Music as an activity, influenced by the desires born out of rajas cannot help us to establish music as a therapy. It is considered one of the ten kāmaja-vyasanas, i.e. addictions (“vices” as translated by Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1909, p. 227) that originate from desire; see Manusṃṛti, 7.47. In Bhagavadgītā, 3.37 (trans. 2018), Bhagavān says to Arjuna, “This desire, this anger, born of the quality of rajas, is a great devourer, a great sinner. Know this to be the enemy here”. As we saw that mental health is related to the stability of sattva, music in relation to rajas could not fulfil the goal here.

  25. For details, see verses 163cd-168ab of the 2nd section and verses 1–6 of the 3rd section of the 1st chapter of SR with the translation and notes of R. K. Shringy (1978).

  26. See Pañcamasārasaṃhitā, 2.3 (Singh, 1984, p. 5)

  27. śriyā vā etad rūpam| yad vīṇā| TB, 3.9.14.1 (in ed. Godbole, 1898) on which Sāyaṇa comments vīṇā hi śriyaḥ svarūpam – a vīṇā is indeed an embodiment of prosperity.

  28. This line is based on the statement of Sāyaṇa, which convey the idea of how a vīṇā could be an embodiment of prosperity: Vīṇāyāḥ śrīrūpatvaṃ loke prasiddham. Daridro’pi yadā śriyaṃ prāpnoti tadānīm asya sukhārthaṃ gāyakair vīṇā vādyate. – It is a well-known fact that vīṇā is an embodiment of prosperity. When a poor becomes rich, musicians play vīṇā to please him (as he is prosperous now).

  29. It is notable that, here, the term Brāhmaṇa is used ideally. A group of qualities naturally exist in human beings. Based on those, one becomes brāhmaṇa or kṣatriya or others. Brāhmaṇic qualities, as stated in Bhagavadgītā 18.42 (trans. 2018), “The natural duties of the brāhmaṇas are the control of the internal and external organs, austerity, purity, forgiveness, straightforwardness, knowledge as also wisdom [Knowledge refers to the understanding of subjects presented by the scriptures; wisdom means making them matters of one’s own experience.] and faith”. This is why Sāyaṇa says in his commentary, Brāhmaṇo hi tapaḥsvādhyāyādau pravṛttaḥ śriyaṃ pālayituṃ na kṣamate – a brāhmaṇa is indeed inadequate to maintain prosperity as he uses to be busy with austerity, self-study etc.

  30. See SB, 13.1.5.3 [yadubhau rājanyau etc.] (in ed. Brāhmaṇam, 1970)

  31. As Kautilya (1992) says, “In the happiness of his subjects lies his happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects. Hence the king shall be ever active in the management of the economy. The root of wealth is [economic] activity and lack of it [brings] material distress (p. 149)” (1.9.34-35).

  32. See SB, 13.1.5.4 [brāhmaṇo’nyo gāyati rājanyo’nyaḥ etc.] (in ed. Brāhmaṇam, 1970)

  33. See SB, 13.1.5.6 (in ed. Brāhmaṇam, 1970). Line goes thus, ayajatetyadadāditi brāhmaṇo gāyati, “He performed such and such sacrifices, such and such he gave etc.”.

  34. ibid

  35. √gai (to sing) + sthan = Gāthā. Sthan is a suffix that transforms a verbal root into nominal form. This is an uṇādi suffix and the rule is uṣi-kuṣi-gārtibhyaḥ sthan (see sūtra number 2.4 of T. R. Chintamani ed., 1992, p. 59). In the commentary of this aphorism, Śvetavanavāsin says, gīyate iti gāthā kāvyaprabandhaḥ—which is to be sung is called gāthā, stands for poetic composition.

  36. For more details, see the Gāthāprakaraṇa (Section on Gāthā) in the commentary on Vṛttaratnākara, 5.12 (in ed. K. N. Śarmā, 2014, p. 159 & pp. 165-167) by Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa (written in 1545 AD)

  37. See Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa, 2.68.96–97; Liṅga-purāṇa, 1.67.15–17; Brahma-purāṇa, 12.39–40 (in GRETIL database, 2020)

  38. For instance, Guttila (Sanskrit: Guptila, name of a vīṇā maestro, a previous birth of Bodhisattva) Jātaka in Tipiṭaka is of two verses [this is the 3rd Jātaka of 9th Vagga (upāhanavagga) of 2nd Nikāya (dukanikāya) of 1st Jātakapāḷi of Khuddanikāya of Suttapiṭaka]. Aṭṭhakathā elaborates the whole story of Guttila based on those and in the middle of the story it recalls the first verse, sattatantiṃ sumadhuraṃ etc. as “… vatvā paḍhamaṃ gātham āha – sattatantiṃ …”

  39. See TB, 3.9.14.3 (in ed. Brāhmaṇam, 1970) [divā brāhmaṇo gāyet| naktaṃ rājanyaḥ| brāhmaṇo vai rūpaṃ ahaḥ| kṣatrasya rātriḥ| (Brāhmaṇa should sing in day time and royal personage at night. Brāhmaṇa is an embodiment of day. The night is of kṣatra (another synonym for royal personage).]

  40. See Kātyāyana-śrautasūtra, 20.3.5 (in ed. D. P. Miśra, 2015) [vāvātāsaṃveśana-sāvitry-uttaramandrāgāna-pariplava-dhṛtīḥ saṃvatsaram]

  41. See the commentary of Sāyaṇa on TB, 3.9.14.3 (in ed. Godbole, 1898, p. 1287) [tatra divase sāvitrīṣṭisambandhinaḥ sviṣṭakṛtaḥ purā brāhmaṇena gātavyam arthaṃ darśayati]

  42. See the commentary of Sāyaṇa on TB, 3.9.14.3 (in ed. Godbole, 1898, p. 1287) [atha sāyandhṛtiṣu hūyamānāsu rājanyena gātavyam arthaṃ darśayati]

  43. See Śārṅgadeva, trans. 1978, pp. 130-146 to understand the standard and modified/non-pure notes on the ancient system of 22 śruti-scale.

  44. The natural ordered scale with standard/pure notes is called Ṣaḍja-grāma. Suppose svaras are like living beings, and they live in a village, grāma. On the other hand, there is another grāma, which has some modified/non-pure notes (only fifth [Pañcama of 3 śrutis] and sixth [Dhaivata ofUpadhyaya 4 śrutis]), is called Madhyama-grāma. See SR 1.4.1-3ab (trans. 1978, pp. 160-163).

  45. See Nāṭyaśāstra, 28.27–28; also see SR 1.4.12-15 (trans. 1978, pp. 169–172)

  46. This initial is used by Shringy for “Siṃhabhūpāla”, one of the famous commentators on SR.

  47. See Bharata-bhāṣya, 4.46–47 (in ed. C. P. Desai, 1961)

  48. Gāndharva was also called Mārga. See Tarlekar, 1991; also see Bṛhaddeśī, 1.1.14–16 (trans. 1992, pp. 4–7)

  49. In the commentary of NS, Abhinavabhāratī, Chap. 28, p. 29

  50. Ibid, p. 30

  51. uttaramandrayā tisro gāthāḥ, ibid

  52. Also see Becker, 1967; Knight, 1985; Zin, 2004

  53. See NS, 29.118 [taccaughatulyakaraṇaṃ vācyaṃ kāryaṃ vipañcyāstu / saptatantrī bhaveccitrā vipañcī tu bhavennava / koṇavādyā vipañcī syāccitrā cāṅgulivādanā //] and 34.14 [vipañcī caiva citrā ca dāravīṣvaṅgasañjñite / kacchapīghoṣakādīni pratyaṅgāni tathaiva ca //] (There are several instances of such vīṇās in Bharhut and Gandhar sculptures displayed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, which the first author himself has observed.)

  54. It is to be noted that Nānyabhūpāla (1097-1147 AD) (in ed. C. P. Desai, 1961) in 1.84 of Bharatabhāṣya mentions that vīṇā is of three in kind: Vakrā (bent/arched), Kaurmī (of tortoise) and Alābū (of gourd). The first one, i.e. vakrā vīṇa can be translated as arched harp as we can find that in the varieties of that, given by him, are vipañcī, citrā, and mattakokilā which are also mentioned in NS (29.118 and 34.14) and by Abhinavagupta in his commentary on NS, 28.4. Though the name mattakokilā is not properly mentioned in NS, according to Abhinavagupta, the term vaiṇika (maestro of vīṇā) is specifically for him who plays mattakokilā; he says that vipañcī is apūrṇatantrikā, i.e. which is deficient regarding its strings, but which is vīṇa is with 21 strings (only where 7 standard notes in all upper, middle and lower octave could be found) and complete in nature (vīṇā tu ekaviṃśatitantrīkā). In the commentary on 29.112 of NS, Abhinavagupta specifically mentions that mattakokilā is the primary vīṇā because mattakokilā is only able to express all notes in lower, middle and upper octaves (tatra mattakokilā pradhānabhūtā | ekaviṃśatitantrīkatvena anyūnādhikaṃ tristhānasvarasāraṇājātigītivīṇāśarīram ucyate). Hence it makes clear the reason why a player of vipañcī is called vaipañcika, while vaiṇika i.e., maestro of vīṇā is referred to as a player of mattakokilā. It elucidates that the main vīṇa of NS is mattakokilā itself, and the explanations of 22 śrutis and others are based on that only. Also see various parts of an arched harp (here the name of vīṇa is vāṇa which is of 10 strings) in Lāṭyāyana Śrautasūtra, 3.12.15 (in ed. A. Vedāntavāgīśa, 1872) [dravyaṃ vāṇasya, Meterials of vāṇa; Agnisvāmin in his commentary: audumbaro vāṇaḥ syād udumbarābhāve yajñiyavṛkṣasya, A vāṇa should be made of udumbara wood. If not available, it would be made of any other tree related to sacrifice (yajña).]; 4.1.1-2 [rohitenānaḍuhenottaralomnā carmaṇāpihitaḥ syāt // tasya daśasu paścācchidreṣu daśa daśa tantryo baddhāḥ syurmauñjyo dārbhyo vā //, This vāṇa should be covered with the rawhide of red/brown oxen. Ten grass-made strings (each entangled with ten fibres of grasses) should be tied with every ten holes at its backward part. Those string-making grasses are mauñja (Saccharum bengalense) or darbha (Imperata cylindrical).]. Also see Singh, 2016, p. 238 on vāṇa.

  55. mānasaḥ punar-iṣṭasya lābhāt lābhāt ca aniṣṭasya upajāyate, CS, 1.11.45; According to Cakrapāṇidatta, “iṣṭsya alābhāt” is also accepted in the authentic reading of CS, however, “obtaining the expected” is also true as it again triggers uncontrolled lust, impulsiveness, overexcitement etc. (iṣṭalābhājjāyate kāmaharṣādiḥ, aniṣṭapriyaviyogādilābhācca śokādayaḥ; yadi vā iṣṭasyālābhāllābhāccāniṣṭasya iti pāṭhaḥ; atra tu pāṭhe cakārādiṣṭalābho’pi heturboddhavyaḥ)

  56. See SR, 1.3.50 (trans. 1978, p. 149) [śeṣāṇāmanuvāditvaṃ vādī rājā’tra gīyate / saṃvādī tvanusāritvādasyāmātyo’bhidhīyate //]

  57. See Śārṅgadeva, trans 1978, pp. 300-307

  58. yayoḥ ca navaka-trayodaśakam antaraṃ tau anyonyaṃ saṃvādinau, NS (Chap. 28, p. 15)

  59. graha-nyāsāpanyāsāḥ tāvat vādinā eva prāyeṇa gṛhītāḥ, Abhinavagupta in Abhinavabhārati, (in Chap. 28, p. 16)

  60. It was equivalent to North Indian rāga Kāphī, South Indian rāga Kharaharapriyā and Dorian mode of western. Similarities are only on the basis of notes, not from the way they are rendered today. However, 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 7th are not exactly the same to hear, but they had shades of them. In other words, these notes of Uttaramandrā (=notes ṣaḍja-grāma) are microtones of its modern equivalents or vice versa.

  61. See NS, 29.2

  62. See Caraka Saṃhitā, 1.26.10 […sarvaṃ dravyaṃ pāñcabhautikam asmin arthe…]; also see Suśruta Saṃhitā, 1.14.3 [tatra pāñcabhautikasya caturvidhasya ṣaḍrasasya…], 1.17.13 […dhārayatyavirodhena śarīraṃ pāñcabhautikam], 1.46.526 [pañcabhūtātmake dehe hyāhāraḥ pāñcabhautikaḥ…]; also see Lad, 1985, pp. 22-23

  63. In the commentary of Caraka Saṃhitā 1.9.4, Cakrapāṇi (1100 AD) says that air etc. (vātādayḥ), i.e. three doṣas and rasa, i.e. seven dhātus and rajas, i.e. three guṇas are dhātus itself (as they collectively one’s constitution if they are not aggravated) [dhātavo vātādayo rasādayaśca tathā rajaḥprabhṛtayaśca]. Also see Wujastyk, 1998, p. 33

  64. See Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya, 1.1.8ab in ed. Bhiṣagācārya, 2010 [vayohorātribhuktānāṃ te’ntamadhyādigāḥ kramāt] and its Āyurveda-rasāyana commentary of Hemādri [ahnaḥ antaḥ aparāhṇaḥ vāyoḥ / madhyaḥ madhyāhnaḥ pittasya / ādiḥ pūrvāhnaḥ kaphasya / rātreḥ antaḥ apararātraḥ vāyoḥ / madhyaḥ madhyarātraḥ pittasya / ādiḥ pūrvarātraḥ kaphasya /]

  65. See Bhagavadgītā 18.43 (trans. 2018) [śauryaṃ tejo dhṛtirdākṣyaṃ yuddhe cāpyapalāyanam / dānamīśvarabhāvaśca kṣātraṃ karma svabhāvajam //]

  66. It is noted that Bharata says, “The stable emotion itself becomes aesthetic emotion, and the stable emotion should be presented with the redundancy of sattva by a performer and composer”. See NS, p. 379 [in extra verses after NS, 7.119, “sthāyyeva tu raso bhavet”, d part of 3rd verse, and “sthāyī sattvātirekeṇa prayoktavyaḥ prayoktṛbhiḥ”, ab part of 4th verse].

  67. See Gnoli, 1985, pp. [46–49, 59–80], and [XL]; also: tatra sarvarasānāṃ śāntaprāya eva āsvādaḥ viṣayebhyaḥ viparivṛttyā tanmukhyatālābhāt kevalaṃ vāsanāntaropahita ityasya sarvaprakṛtitvābhidhānāya pūrvamabhidhānam (NS, ed. 1956, Chapt. 6, p. 339)

  68. This care and cure policy is also the prayojana (object) of Ayurvedic doctrine. Says Caraka (Sharma, 2014), “prayojanaṃ cāsya svasthasya svāsthyarakṣaṇamāturasya vikārapraśamanaṃ ca – The object (of Ayurveda) is to protect health of the healthy and to alleviate disorders in the diseased (p. 240)” (Caraka Saṃhitā, 1.30.26).

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Prosanta Dey, Associate Professor, Department of Sanskrit, Maheshtala College (University of Calcutta), Maheshtala, BPT Road, Kolkata – 700141, India, for his help in identifying some critical parts in the study of Aśvamedha rite. The authors are deeply grateful to Mr. Arnab Chakraborty, an eminent educator of the English language and literate, Barasat, West Bengal, India, who went through the manuscript and refined the language of the paper.

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  1. Barasat, 700126, India

    Abirlal Gangopadhyay

  2. Department of Sanskrit Studies, School of Humanities, University of Hyderabad, Prof. CR Rao Road, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telangana, 500046, India

    J. S. R. Prasad

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Gangopadhyay, A., Prasad, J.S.R. The Role of Uttaramandrā-Gāthā in the Aśvamedha: Ancient Evidence of Music for Psychological Stress. DHARM (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42240-024-00175-y

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