1 Introduction

The unpredictable future shaped by digitalisation, global changes, and the overwhelming mix of correct and misleading information presents schools with a critical challenge: identifying essential skills students need for today’s and tomorrow’s world. In this evolving context, cross-disciplinary or ‘21st Century Skills’ such as self-regulation, growth mindsets, flexibility, and perseverance are increasingly important for lifelong learning (Kirschner and Stoyanov 2020; OECD 2019). The emphasis is shifting from mere knowledge accumulation to the crucial ability to learn, unlearn, and relearn—a necessary skill in a world of rapidly expanding information and emerging technologies (Toffler 1990). Self-regulated learning (SRL) has thus become a key ‘future literacy’, enabling learners to be more creative and innovative, to explore new options for action, and to adapt to current and future challenges (United Nations 2018).

SRL positions students as ‘masters’ of their learning, capable of making informed decisions about what, when, and how to learn (Zimmerman 2002). Self-regulated learners, driven by a growth mindset, are eager to regulate their learning process, embrace new challenges, learn from mistakes, and remain undeterred by difficulties (Hertel and Karlen 2021). SRL involves monitoring and regulating learning activities (e.g., self-awareness, adaptively using strategies, flexibility) and managing motivational and emotional aspects (e.g., persevering through challenges, regulating frustration) related to learning (Bjork et al. 2013). However, students often resort to ineffective strategies (McDaniel and Einstein 2020) or struggle to effectively integrate various SRL skills to overcome learning challenges (Karlen 2016a). This is not surprising as some students lack SRL experience, either overestimate or underestimate their SRL skills (León et al. 2023), and perceive mental load in applying strategies (Wirth et al. 2020), leading to inappropriate strategy choices (Kirk-Johnson et al. 2019; Kornell and Bjork 2007). Therefore, in addition to understanding strategies, students need guidance on when and how to apply them, recognise their relevance in successful learning, and be actively encouraged to use them (Hertel and Karlen 2021; Pintrich 2002).

Research indicates that SRL is a significant factor in student performance across different school levels and learning environments (Broadbent and Poon 2015; Dent and Koenka 2016). Given SRL’s importance from early education through the school career, its early and ongoing promotion is crucial. As SRL doesn’t develop automatically and its various processes aren’t intuitive or innate but require specific encouragement, teachers play a fundamental role in supporting students to become self-regulated learners (Karlen et al. 2020; Perry 2013). However, students are rarely taught effective strategies, and teachers often incorporate only a limited number of specific strategies in their teaching (Dignath and Büttner 2018). Additionally, teachers may hold misconceptions about SRL, its assessment, and who benefits from SRL instruction (Bäuerlein et al. 2023; Lawson et al. 2019). Therefore, further research is needed to explore the variety of SRL instruction strategies used by teachers in different settings (e.g. classrooms, digital learning environments, individual coaching), understand which professional competences in SRL may explain variations in SRL promotion, and determine how these competences can be developed through training.

2 The role of teachers in promoting self-regulated learning—INSPIRE

Teachers can promote SRL in various ways, requiring them to take on different roles. Teachers’ multifaceted role in supporting students to become self-regulated learners is represented by the acronym INSPIRE: instructor, navigator, strategist, promoter, innovator, role model, and encourager.

As ‘Instructors’, teachers impart effective strategies to students, highlighting how these strategies can be applied in various contexts. This process involves teachers directly introducing, demonstrating, and explicitly explaining a strategy. It also requires providing students with metacognitive knowledge about the strategy and the task at hand, as well as demonstrating how to monitor the use of a specific strategy (McDaniel and Einstein 2020; Pintrich 2002; Pressley et al. 1992). As instructors, teachers help students understand how and when to use different strategies, thus enabling learners to apply SRL routines more consciously (Veenman et al. 2006). Teachers explicitly discuss and co-construct with students the knowledge and skills needed to begin their journey toward SRL. As students do not automatically transfer strategies across different learning contexts (Stebner et al. 2022), teachers support learners in transferring their strategies from one context to another. This can be accomplished by embedding direct strategy instruction into various school subjects and explicitly prompting students to apply certain strategies across subjects (Karlen et al. 2022). Additionally, assisting students in develo** action plans for strategy implementation will support them in gaining valuable experience in SRL (Duckworth et al. 2013). This role is pivotal in hel** students develop a toolbox of strategies they can draw from, depending on the task and subject. This approach encourages a deeper engagement and commitment to their self-regulated learning journey.

As ‘Navigators’, teachers guide students through the SRL process, hel** them set realistic goals, plan their learning paths, and navigate challenges. Teachers act as coaches in this role, offering direction and support when needed, while allowing students the autonomy to make their own decisions and learn from their experiences. To provide adaptive guidance, teachers need to assess the strengths and weaknesses of their learners in SRL (Karlen et al. 2023). Students with lower SRL skills might initially require more explicit instruction, gradually transitioning to more implicit and indirect support. Teachers might co-regulate students’ SRL processes by guiding and scaffolding them in strategy selection and use, monitoring progress, and reflecting on the effectiveness of these strategies (Russell et al. 2022) A crucial aspect of teaching SRL is the gradual transfer of responsibility from teacher to student, shifting from teaching strategies to supporting strategic learning (Paris and Paris 2001). Thus, based on their assessment skills, teachers continuously adapt the SRL requirements to enable students to develop their SRL skills within their zone of proximal development (Corno 2008). Teachers track students’ progress in develo** SRL skills and intervene when necessary to provide additional support or guidance. This involves employing formative assessment practices with feedback focused on learning processes and self-regulation (Allal 2020; van der Linden et al. 2023), and encouraging students to make their SRL progress and learning visible through learning journals, which can significantly enhance SRL and achievement (Nückles et al. 2020). This guidance is crucial for students to effectively and confidently apply SRL strategies.

As ‘Strategists’, teachers establish the necessary structures, routines, expectations, and activities for students to engage in SRL. This also includes teachers emphasise high-quality instructional methods, incorporating generic dimensions of teaching quality such as clear instruction, student support, and effective classroom management (Praetorius et al. 2018). Teaching quality creates an important basis for promoting the use of strategies (Rieser et al. 2016). Teachers also strategically integrate SRL principles directly into the curriculum, making SRL a part of their lesson planning (Karlen et al. 2022). This means that students have multiple opportunities to work on the same SRL skills repeatedly throughout the curriculum. But, following the spiral principle of education, with increasing levels of complexity or in different situations (Bruner 1996). Teachers develop a clear vision of where students should end up at the end of a lesson and include subject and SRL skills in their backward planning routines (Wiggins and McTighe 2011). They also exchange ideas with other teachers. Together they develop a clear idea of how to create the best possible conditions for promoting SRL in their school (De Smul et al. 2019a).

As ‘Promoters’ of SRL, teachers indirectly promote SRL by designing meaningful and authentic tasks that may extend over longer periods, thereby catalysing the activation of SRL (De Corte et al. 2004). These tasks encourage students to engage deeply with content, apply various strategies, persist in their learning journey, and engage in the cycle of strategic actions (Butler 2021). Teachers initiate thoughtful dialogue with students about their thinking and learning processes, fostering metacognition and reflective practices. This dialogue is facilitated by a shared SRL language that supports articulating thoughts and learning processes effectively. Tasks, activities, and assessments are crafted to be open and flexible, providing choices regarding the level of challenge—such as the amount of work to be done and the pace—to accommodate different interests and abilities. Such choices encourage students to tackle problems and inquiries independently, enhancing their problem-solving skills. Cooperative teaching methods are used, creating a classroom atmosphere where students can work together, learn from each other and engage in peer and self-assessment (Pasternak et al. 2014). The interaction between teachers and students, as well as among students themselves, is crucial. In this collaborative professional relationship, jointly setting objectives and collectively tackling tasks fosters an environment where students engage in adaptive seeking of assistance and naturally offer help to others. This collaboration fosters a supportive SRL-oriented learning community (Perry 2013).

As ‘Innovators’, teachers constantly seek new and effective ways to enhance SRL. This can involve integrating technology, experimenting with new teaching methods, or adapting current practices to better suit the needs of their students (Molenaar 2022; Sailer et al. 2021). The integration of technology, such as AI-driven educational tools, can offer personalised learning experiences, data-driven insights into student progress, and adaptive and real-time feedback, further facilitating SRL. These technological advancements not only aid in customising the learning process but also engage students in novel and interactive ways, fostering deeper involvement in their own SRL journey (Brod et al. 2023).

As ‘Role models’, teachers model SRL by demonstrating their practices through their own SRL actions and behaviour (Paris and Winograd 2003). They share their experiences of overcoming learning difficulties, emphasising the importance of effort, persistence, and strategy use. By embodying such practices, teachers not only guide students in SRL but also inspire them through their own example as self-regulated lifelong learners. Teachers use metacognitive language to give examples of how students can talk about their own learning process. When teachers model SRL, they provide students with opportunities to observe successful SRL practices and task completion. For example, by thinking aloud when using a strategy, which involves verbalising the use of a strategy to solve a task and provides insight into a deeper understanding of SRL processes. This allows students to experience firsthand how SRL activities are used during learning and how these activities are arranged in relation to different learning contexts.

As ‘Encouragers’, teachers provide essential motivation and support, recognising effort and progress, thereby fostering self-efficacy that empowers students to persevere and flourish as self-regulated learners. They actively promote the importance and benefits of SRL both within the school environment and in broader life contexts. They nurture their students’ curiosity, enthusiasm, and passion for SRL. Teachers demonstrate great interest in their students’ inquiries and express confidence in their ability to successfully self-regulate their learning. They promote a growth mindset towards SRL, reassuring students that develo** effective strategies may take time, effort, and learning from mistakes, and attributing success to effort and the use of effective strategies (Hertel and Karlen 2021; Hertel et al. 2024). Furthermore, teachers may need to motivate students by elucidating the effectiveness of a strategy and its link to learning outcomes, hel** students to recognise the practical value of these strategies (Harackiewicz et al. 2016; Karabenick et al. 2021). This approach helps to address learners’ scepticism about the applicability of strategies and the effort and time required for a new strategy to become effective (Biwer et al. 2020). A positive relationship between teachers and students is fundamental to establishing a classroom culture that values and supports SRL.

Each of these roles is crucial, working together to create an environment where SRL is not just taught but deeply embedded in everyday learning. Thus, the teaching of SRL and content are intertwined (Karlen et al. 2022). Through this comprehensive approach, SRL-inspiring teachers cultivate SRL within the framework of meaningful and authentic activities. SRL-inspiring teachers engage learners in a continuous, interactive, and reflective cycle of strategy use throughout their individual learning journeys.

3 The skills teachers need to inspire self-regulated learning in the classroom

In develo** learning environments and tasks that support and require SRL, teachers blend their knowledge about SRL principles and instructional strategies with their personal experiences as self-regulated learners. This comprehensive approach ensures they are not only merely transmitting theoretical knowledge but are also leveraging their own experiences to effectively nurture SRL in their students. SRL-inspiring (INSPIRE) teachers have a deep understanding of effective strategies and can guide students to become proficient users of these strategies. For teachers to promote SRL effectively, they need the requisite knowledge, beliefs, and motivation as agents and also actively engage in SRL themselves. Karlen et al. (2020) emphasise that successful SRL teachers demonstrate these qualities both in their capacity as self-regulated learners and as agents of SRL.

Teachers’ own experience and expertise as self-regulated learners can influence aspects of their competence as agents of SRL and their promotion of SRL (Karlen et al. 2023b). Through their use and evaluation of strategies, teachers develop metacognitive knowledge about strategies, which can influence their students’ metacognitive understanding of SRL (Soodla et al. 2017). SRL teachers not only have a comprehensive repertoire of strategies but also recognise that students may neglect certain strategies, rely solely on surface-level strategies, or struggle to change established strategy habits (Paris and Winograd 2003). Furthermore, teachers’ own SRL skills affect their ability to foster a mastery-oriented classroom environment and their self-efficacy in promoting SRL (Gordon et al. 2007; Karlen et al. 2023b). In summary, to effectively support students to become self-regulated learners, teachers themselves need to be adept self-regulated learners.

For teachers as agents of SRL, a deep understanding of SRL theory—content knowledge about SRL (CK-SRL)—is crucial for explaining SRL concepts to students. Additionally, teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK-SRL) is essential for determining how to teach SRL effectively (Barr and Askell-Williams 2020; Karlen et al. 2020). Beliefs consistent with SRL (e.g. the belief that SRL can enhance student achievement) support teachers in valuing strategy instruction, whereas beliefs that are inconsistent with SRL (e.g. the belief that SRL cannot be taught) may negatively impact SRL promotion (Vosniadou et al. 2020). Moreover, teachers’ beliefs in their ability to successfully promote SRL (self-efficacy), their valuation of SRL promotion (e.g. utility value), and their perception of the costs associated with SRL promotion are correlated with their SRL promotion efforts (Hirt et al. 2022; Jud et al. 2023). However, research on the relationship between teachers’ competences as self-regulated learners and as agents of SRL, and their effectiveness in SRL promotion, has yielded inconsistent results. Therefore, it is imperative to gain further insights into the connection between teachers’ professional competences and their SRL promotion.

4 The contribution of this special issue to the field of self-regulated learning research

This special issue aims to link the research areas on the promotion of SRL in the classroom and on the professional competences of teachers in promoting SRL. This enables an exploration of the relationship between teachers’ professional competences and instructional practices in SRL against the background of inspiring SRL. It also has implications for the initial and further training of teachers in order to develop the necessary professional competences for teaching SRL. The special issue features three articles focusing on the promotion of SRL and the role of teachers’ professional competences in its facilitation (Backer et al., this issue; Fischer and Dignath, this issue; Rosenthal et al., this issue). Additionally, a fourth article examines preservice teacher training in SRL (Zeeb et al., this issue).

Looking at teachers’ SRL promotion Backer et al.’s study reveals that secondary school teachers report a higher frequency of SRL promotion than preschool and primary school teachers. This aligns with Fischer and Dignath’s (this issue) findings of increased SRL promotion at higher grade levels. Considering the importance of fostering SRL from an early age (Compagnoni et al. 2019), these findings suggest the need to integrate SRL into the early education and training of preschool and primary school teachers and to support these teachers to become successful SRL inspirers. Teachers at the secondary level may promote SRL more frequently, but Rosenthal et al. (this issue) have shown that promoting SRL takes up very little time in the lower secondary classroom compared to teaching subject content.

An even more specific examination of the promotion of SRL in the classroom can be found in the studies by Rosenthal et al. (this issue) and Dignath and Fischer (this issue), who highlight that, despite its infrequency, the focus of SRL instructional time is on the promotion of metacognitive strategies, which differs from previous research that reported a focus on cognitive strategies (Dignath and Büttner 2018). Further, emotional strategies remain underutilised, and teachers tend to teach strategies more implicitly than explicitly (Fischer and Dignath, this issue; Rosenthal et al., this issue), which is in line with previous research (Dignath and Büttner 2018). In distance learning contexts during the COVID-19 pandemic, many teachers reportedly used this setting to grant students autonomy in task choice and order, while cooperative learning and constructivist environments were less common (Fischer and Dignath, this issue). In contrast, Rosenthal et al. (this issue) observed higher incidences of student support and cooperative learning in regular classrooms. Taken together, the findings about teachers’ variation in promoting SRL highlight differences dependent on students’ age group and on the learning context (online vs. face-to-face). Although Fischer and Dignath (this issue) and Rosenthal et al. (this issue) included teachers teaching different subjects, neither study addressed the open question of the extent to which subject-specific SRL promotion might occur.

Focusing on the relationship between teachers’ SRL promotion and students’ SRL skills, Rosenthal et al. (this issue) reported no consistent correlation, echoing previous research that showed no or negative relationships between teachers’ SRL promotion and student SRL skills (Heirweg et al. 2021; Karlen 2016b). A possible explanation could be that teachers adapt their instruction to the student’s current level of SRL. This implies that teachers promote SRL more often if they consider their students to have lower SRL skills. Another explanation could be that SRL skills require (a) more direct explicit promotion of strategies, including metacognitive knowledge about strategies, and (b) more time to develop. From SRL training studies, we know that extensive promotion of SRL supports students’ development of SRL skills (Schuster et al. 2023). Unsystematic promotion of SRL by teachers has no impact on the development of SRL within one school year (Karlen 2016b). For this reason, it is important that in the future, more longitudinal studies are carried out in the school context in order to understand the conditions under which SRL skills develop and how teachers can support students in becoming self-regulated learners.

To what extent can teachers’ professional competences in SRL explain differences in their SRL promotion? Fischer and Dignath (this issue) concluded that teachers’ misconceptions about students’ needs in SRL and lack of confidence and experience in implementing SRL strategies were the main barriers. They also noted that teachers’ ICT competence influenced teachers’ self-reported SRL promotion in distance education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Backer et al. (this issue) found that teacher self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of their self-reported SRL promotion, supporting previous research on the importance of teacher motivation and self-efficacy (De Smul et al. 2019b; Jud et al. 2023). However, they observed no correlation between teachers’ beliefs about SRL and their promotion of SRL. Interestingly, higher PCK-SRL was negatively related to self-reported SRL promotion. In this regard, Karlen et al. (2023b) suggested that teachers with higher PCK-SRL might focus on quality rather than the frequency of SRL promotion. Rosenthal et al. found limited links between teachers’ professional competences and their videotaped SRL promotion. Taken together, these studies highlight the complexity of the relationship between teachers’ professional competences and their self-reported and videotaped SRL promotion. They highlight the need for different assessment methods and perspectives, such as students’ perceptions, for a more comprehensive understanding (Karlen et al. 2023b). So far, only teacher self-efficacy seems to be a reliable predictor of their SRL promotion. There is a need for further research and, if necessary, new measurement methods to explore the relationships between teachers’ personal competences in SRL and their SRL promotion in different learning environments.

In terms of supporting teachers’ development of professional competences in SRL, Zeeb et al. (this issue) explored the impact of a digital learning tool on preservice teachers. The study underscored the benefits of learning journals in enhancing metacognitive knowledge about strategies. Further, they reported that while initial feedback support improved the quality of peer feedback, this effect diminished over time, pointing to the necessity of adaptability in instructional methods. High-quality feedback particularly enhanced the use of cognitive strategies of teachers as self-regulated learners. This approach of combining learning journal writing with peer feedback on SRL could be a promising method for supporting teachers’ SRL development as self-regulated learners and as agents of SRL in teacher training and professional development programmes.

5 What lessons can be learned from the studies in this special issue

The papers collectively examine the aspects of teachers’ professional knowledge, beliefs, and motivation as both self-regulated learners and agents of SRL. It delves into how teachers’ professional competences correlate with their promotion of SRL and the ways in which these competences can be developed through training. Thus, it contributes to learning more about SRL-INSPIREing teachers and instruction.

The research presented reveals that teachers often do not explicitly teach strategies to their students. When they (implicitly) teach strategies, the focus tends to be on metacognitive strategies, frequently overlooking others, such as motivational or emotional strategies. For students to build a comprehensive strategy repertoire, it is important that teachers introduce various strategies and encourage students to apply and reflect on these strategies across different tasks, for example, by implementing a learning journal (Nückles et al. 2020; Zeeb et al., this issue). Therefore, it remains crucial for (preservice) teachers to gain the necessary skills as self-regulated learners and as agents to be able to explicitly teach strategies and to integrate SRL teaching with specific subject content, aiming to embed it into everyday teaching practices and to sustainable INSPIRE students SRL.

Regarding teachers’ professional competences, some teachers may hold misconceptions about SRL, have inconsistent beliefs about SRL, show low self-efficacy in teaching SRL, or are ineffective SRL learners. Thus, the integration of SRL into teacher education is not only crucial as a subject within educational sciences but also as an essential component of subject-specific didactics and practical training in schools. This is a necessary prerequisite for effectively teaching SRL in everyday school life. Zeeb et al. (this issue) have shown how lecturers can train preservice teachers to be self-regulated learners and effective agents of SRL. However, this assumes that educators themselves have adequate knowledge of SRL, which is not always the case (Morehead et al. 2016). To strengthen SRL both among (preservice) teachers and in schools, it is likely that it needs to be firmly anchored in teacher education. There are various examples of how lecturers can support their preservice teachers in develo** professional competences in SRL (Bembenutty et al. 2015; Michalsky and Schechter 2013).

Considering the influence of teachers’ promotion of SRL on students’ SRL skills, along with the impact on teachers’ training and their SRL competences, it is evident that a ‘one size fits all’ approach is unlikely to be effective. Promoting and training in SRL may require time and effort for both students and teachers. Therefore, more longitudinal studies involving both teachers and students are necessary to understand how these competences and skills develop over time for both groups. Additionally, it may be beneficial to focus on integrating research on adaptivity and SRL. Students with lower SRL skills may benefit from more structured learning environments and higher levels of teacher guidance than their more skilled peers. In contrast, students with more advanced SRL skills might need opportunities to practice strategies in various tasks and situations. Therefore, teachers need diagnostic competences to assess their students’ SRL needs and strengths, which in turn enables them to adapt their teaching methods. However, teachers’ judgments of their students’ SRL do not always correspond to the students’ actual SRL skills (Carr and Kurtz 1991; Bäuerlein et al. 2023; van de Pol and Oudman 2023). AI-based learning technologies could be instrumental in aiding teachers to achieve this, facilitating accessible assessment, and providing adaptive feedback and support (OECD 2021). While the potential of AI-based learning technologies to support adaptive teaching and SRL is promising, further research is needed to understand the synergy between these tools and ‘traditional’ teaching methods. In preparing both students and teachers for lifelong learning, emphasising the development of digital literacy alongside SRL skills will be crucial. The INSPIRE model can provide a framework for systematically examining teachers’ multiple roles in supporting students’ SRL in everyday school life and develo** interventions for teachers. In summary, this special issue highlights the significance of teachers INSPIRE-ing students to embrace SRL to meet the learning-related challenges of the present and the future.