1 Introduction

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, the role of school leadership has become preeminent, as the challenges facing educational institutions continue to mount (Ghamrawi, 2010, 2011, 2013a, b, c, d; Leroy et al., 2022; Tan et al., 2024). School leaders find themselves at the forefront of a complex and dynamic environment, where the demands and expectations placed upon them have reached unprecedented heights (Ghamrawi & Tamim, 2022; Chatzipanagiotou & Katsarou, 2023; Tamadoni et al., 2024). The efficacy of school leadership, therefore, hinges upon the continuous development and refinement of the skills, knowledge, and strategies needed to navigate these turbulent waters (Ghamrawi & Abu-Tineh, 2023, Ghamrawi et al., 2023a, b, c, d; 2024a, b, c, d, e; Lumban Gaol, 2023).

Professional development programs have long been a cornerstone of enhancing leadership skills (Ghamrawi, 2023; 2024; Barth et al., 2024; Shal et al., 2019). However, the critical question that arises is whether these programs truly cater to the unique and multifaceted needs of school leaders. After all, no one comprehends the intricacies of their roles better than the school principals themselves (Shal et al., 2018a; Piala et al., 2024). The notion that a one-size-fits-all approach can adequately address the distinct challenges faced by these educational stewards has proven to be inadequate (Shal et al., 2018b).

The literature indicates that communities of practice (CoPs) provide valuable settings for the development of school leadership (Bickmore et al., 2021). A CoP consists of individuals who come together in person, sharing a common interest or passion, to engage in mutual learning and support each other’s professional growth (Admiraal et al., 2021). When such collaborations occur online through digital platforms, they are referred to as virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) (Ghamrawi, 2022; Shal et al., 2024a, b, c). These communities are typically formed around a specific topic, field, or domain, and members engage in ongoing discussions, share resources, and work collectively to solve problems or address challenges related to their common interest (Harvey et al., 2013).

The participation of school leaders in such communities is on the rise, signaling a shift towards more personalized and context-specific professional development opportunities (Ribble & Park, 2019). While they are not new, vCops gained immense popularity, especially during the challenging period of the COVID-19 pandemic, as they emerged as the only means for individuals to connect with others (Ghamrawi, 2022).

The existing literature includes few studies addressing school leaders and CoPs. These studies investigated CoPs as means for collaborative problem-solving for school leaders (Bickmore et al., 2021), tools for encouraging parental involvement in children’s education (Torre & Murphy, 2016), and the school principals’ leadership styles impact on teacher involvement in communities of practice (Somprach et al., 2017).

While the existing body of literature has explored the relationship between CoPs and school leadership, albeit with room for further research; a significant research gaps persist. Firstly, most studies have centered around CoPs, with limited attention to the intersection of vCoPs with school leadership. Secondly, there is a noticeable absence of research examining customized professional development opportunities for school leaders facilitated through vCoPs. This study aimed to bridge this gap by examining how vCoPs can serve as effective tools for the growth and development of school leaders. It was guided by the following research questions:

  • How do school principals perceive the value of virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) in their professional development and leadership growth?

  • What are the key elements of vCoPs that contribute to the development of school leaders within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region?

2 Literature review

2.1 School leaders’ professional development

Researchers, educational practitioners, and policymakers underscore efficacious school leadership as a crucial factor for schools to meet future demands and fulfill their mission of providing all students with the opportunity to cultivate and attain their educational objectives and personal growth (Leithwood et al., 2017). In fact, research in the field of school leadership underscores the influential role played by school principals’ leadership practices in sha** both school improvement (Lambrecht et al., 2022; Thien et al., 2023) and students’ academic achievements (Fullan, 2015; Leithwood et al., 2020).

However, the challenges faced by school leaders are on the rise, with a significant increase in both the number and complexity of these challenges over time, highlighting the growing need for revisions in educational policies and the thoughtful development and implementation of leadership training programs (Tintoré et al., 2022). Principal preparation programs should undergo a comprehensive reevaluation that probes into the intricate web of contextual factors (Brauckmann et al., 2023). By taking a closer look at these contextual influences, principal preparation programs can better align themselves with the specific needs and challenges faced by schools and communities, ultimately fostering more effective educational leadership (Grissom et al., 2019).

In the same vein, Sutcher et al. (2017) conducted a comprehensive literature review, with a specific focus on identifying the essential components of leadership development linked to tangible improvements in school outcomes. These enhancements encompassed heightened retention rates among both principals and educators, along with tangible advancements in student learning results. Their analysis underscored the critical importance of grounding program curricula in the contextual needs and challenges faced by school leaders, emphasizing the necessity for a tailored and contextually responsive approach.

Likewise, Levin et al. (2020) suggest that effective principal development must be characterized by the provision of ‘authentic, contextually embedded professional learning experiences, individualized support from mentors or coaches, and networking structures such as professional learning communities (PLCs)’ (Levin et al., 2020, p.2). Unfortunately, the professional development programs provided to school principals often conform to the traditional ‘ sit and get’ workshop model (Ikemoto et al., 2014). In this approach, information is imparted to them, with a noticeable absence of substantial guidance on how this knowledge can be effectively harnessed to drive context-specific school improvement initiatives.

Moreover, the professional development experiences that principals commonly partake in often deviate from established principles of effective adult learning (Allen et al., 2022). Notably, they tend to fall short in providing meaningful and authentic on-the-job learning opportunities and the necessary support, which research has shown to be highly effective (Donley et al., 2021). Moreover, the potential benefits of principal networks and professional learning communities, which serve as more prevalent professional development strategies, are sometimes overlooked (Gore &Rosser, 2022). These networks and communities provide principals with opportunities to establish collegial relationships, learn from peers, and collaboratively address shared challenges in the realm of practice.

2.2 School leadership development in CoPs

Most of the literature on CoPs focuses on teacher professional growth and teacher leadership nourishment rather than principals’ leadership development. The majority of existing studies predominantly focus on the actions that principals can take to sustain meaningful professional communities among teachers and how principals can effectively influence and support teacher collaboration (Buttram & Farley-Ripple, 2016). This literature emphasizes CoPs as means for fostering a culture centered on knowledge exchange, collaboration, and reflective teaching practices (Liu et al., 2022). These communities offer teachers a nurturing network that encourages them to seek guidance, share best practices, and engage in continuous professional growth (Zhang et al., 2023). Through collaborative learning initiatives, structured feedback mechanisms, and avenues for assuming leadership roles, CoPs promote teacher leadership (Turner et al., 2018).

Research on the development of school leadership through Communities of Practice (CoPs) is notably limited in scope. The researchers identified only three studies that specifically addressed this topic. In a case study conducted by Bickmore et al. (2021) in the USA, an investigation was carried out into a pilot professional development endeavor where school leaders regularly convened within a CoP. The primary objective was to collectively refine their comprehension of identified practical challenges and subsequently formulate and implement strategies for school improvement. The study’s outcomes revealed conspicuously positive perceptions of and active engagement within this CoP. It functioned as a conduit for genuine feedback, facilitated reflective practices, and served as an invaluable platform for the exchange of innovative ideas. Significantly, participants reported enhancements in their leadership behaviors, directly linked to the planning and execution of school improvement initiatives. This underscores the constructive impact of collaborative professional development on the leadership competencies and practices of school leaders.

On the other hand, Lambert and Bouchamma (2021) conducted a study that explored a vCoP as an approach to professional development for school principals in Canada. Their study involved a group of ten school principals who engaged in a vCoP for a duration of one year. During the early stage of this virtual CoP, members exhibited enthusiasm as they acquainted themselves, showing interest in the proposed activities. After a year of virtual sessions, seven out of the ten participants chose to continue, emphasizing the significant professional growth they experienced during the initial year and their anticipation for further development in the following year. They concluded that the vCoP facilitated collaborative sharing aimed at enhancing the professional competencies essential for effective role fulfillment, accommodating the individual pace of each participant.

In a third study Shal et al. (2018a) introduced a novel mobile application named ‘SkooLead’ with the specific goal of exploring the potential of Web 2.0 technologies in the context of school leaders’ professional development. SkooLead was designed to address the various barriers that school principals often encountered when attempting to harness Web 2.0 tools for personalized learning. As such, it was designed to empower school principals offering them personalized learning opportunities based on their needs and interests. It offered a wealth of resources such as leadership tips, research findings, and discussion boards, all accessible at the user’s convenience. Moreover, it allowed principals to engage at their own pace and connect with colleagues for knowledge-sharing. The results of the case study revealed promising findings regarding the potential of such tools, when used in ideal conditions, to facilitate differentiated leadership development among school principals, highlighting the significance of technology in advancing educational leadership practices.

2.3 The dark side of online communities

While previous studies have highlighted the positive aspects of CoPs, recent literature on online communities has brought attention to their darker side. Ferreira et al. (2023) delve into the ethical dilemmas and challenges prevalent within these virtual environments, encompassing issues such as cyberbullying, online aggression, solicitation of harmful behaviors, safety concerns, software piracy, credibility of information, and cultural differences impacting safety.

In alignment with these concerns, Tseng et al. (2022) emphasize the critical importance of information credibility and perceived privacy risks in social networks, highlighting their significant influence on user consumption patterns. This underscores the need for meticulous attention to be paid when develo** online communities to mitigate such risks. Similarly, Xu et al. (2016) shed light on another potential drawback for online communities, namely online aggression, further emphasizing the importance of fostering safe digital spaces.

In addition, Posey et al. (2010) elucidate how cultural differences can impact safety within online communities, stressing the necessity for cross-cultural sensitivity in digital environments. Additionally, Yu (2014) explore the pervasive issue of software piracy within these communities, revealing the challenges associated with enforcing intellectual property rights. Lastly, Ouakouak and Ouedraogo (2019) delve into the intricacies of commitment and trust within online communities, suggesting that sustaining member engagement and loyalty hinges on triggering curiosity and continuous development within these digital spaces.

While the literature discussed has provided valuable insights into the dark side of online communities, it is important to note that none of these studies specifically addressed online communities tailored for school leaders. Again, this highlights a gap in the literature on online communities for school leadership professional development. This study addressed a significant gap in the existing literature by shedding light on the relatively unexplored terrain of vCoPs and their role in the leadership development of school leaders. It did so within the context of the GCC region, where, to the knowledge of the researchers, no prior studies have ventured into this subject, thus contributing unique insights to the field.

3 Methodology

3.1 Research Design

The research design for this study followed a phenomenological approach. Phenomenology is a qualitative research method that seeks to explore and understand the lived experiences and perspectives of individuals regarding a specific phenomenon or phenomena (Vagle, 2018). In this study, the researchers aimed to gain deep insights into the experiences of school principals participating in the vCoP and how this virtual community impacted their leadership development. The phenomenological approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of the unique experiences, perceptions, and meanings attributed by the participants to their involvement in the vCoP, providing valuable qualitative data for analysis and interpretation. Data collection methods included semi-structured interviews, enabling participants to express their experiences and perspectives in their own words, contributing to a deep understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

3.2 Participants

A virtual community of practice (vCoP) was established during the COVID-19 pandemic under the auspices of UNESCO by one of the researchers. Its primary aim was to provide free-of-charge support to educators from all Arab States, enabling them to collaborate and assist their students’ learning during the pandemic.

The vCoP, initially established to assist schools during the pandemic, has surpassed its original purpose. The vCoP serves as an online platform aimed at facilitating collaboration and knowledge exchange among educators. Initially established in response to the challenges posed by the pandemic, the vCoP has expanded its reach beyond its original scope. Through virtual forums, webinars, and collaborative projects, educators from diverse backgrounds engage in discussions, share resources, and contribute to professional development initiatives. Its inclusive nature welcomes educators worldwide, fostering a supportive environment for learning and growth. Beyond its initial purpose, the vCoP continues to play a valuable role in connecting educators and promoting innovation in educational practices, as described by its website.

While it was originally conceived to support educational institutions during the crisis, it has evolved into a global community, transcending regional boundaries. Particularly noteworthy is its appeal to Arabic-speaking educators worldwide. Importantly, the vCoP continues to thrive and attract both existing members and new participants, even beyond the pandemic. Its ongoing existence and ability to engage educators from diverse backgrounds highlight its enduring relevance and impact within the educational landscape up to the present day. Data for this study was collected from school principals from the GCC area during the academic year 2022–2023.

Governance of the vCoP is vested in an elected board consisting of educators who use the platform, and they provided the researchers with enrollment data. Notably, the platform had 174 school principals as registered members, with 39 hailing from the GCC region. Among these 39 principals, only 19 had maintained their enrollment for over two years since the vCoP’s inception, allowing them to experience the benefits of the vCoP both during and after the pandemic.

Through the vCoP board, the researchers invited all 19 principals to participate in semi-structured interviews to explore the vCoP’s role in develo** their leadership skills. Sixteen school principals expressed interest in the study; however, 15 principals formed the study sample, as one of them was involved in piloting the interview schedule. The characteristics of participants are presented in Table 1. For ethical considerations, and to preserve the anonymity of participants, they were assigned numbers based on the order in which interviews were conducted with them.

Table 1 Characteristics of participants
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3.3 Research Instrument

For the purpose of this study, a semi-structured interview schedule was carefully developed (Table 2). The interview schedule underwent a process of iterative refinement and revision to optimize its effectiveness and relevance to the research study. To ensure its quality, it underwent peer review by two expert colleagues not affiliated with this study. Additionally, we conducted a pilot interview with a school principal from the vCoP who shared characteristics with our sample. Each interview lasted approximately 35 min.

Table 2 Interview schedule
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4 Data analysis

We conducted theme-based analysis, employing a comprehensive approach that encompassed open coding, axial coding, and selective coding as advocated by Williams and Moser (2019). To ensure the robustness of our codes and themes, we implemented a peer debriefing approach. In this method, two researchers independently coded the data, followed by cross-referencing and harmonization, in accordance with the methodology recommended by Scharp and Sanders (2019).

Throughout the analysis, the interview transcripts were systematically segmented into smaller units, and each unit received an appropriate code during the open coding phase. These codes were consistently compared and contrasted to discern both commonalities and distinctions among them. Subsequently, we progressed to axial coding, wherein the codes were organized into categories, fostering the establishment of connections and relationships between these categories. Finally, in the selective coding stage, we elevated the central coding to a more abstract level, affording us the opportunity to refine the narrative of the study, in line with Flick (2009) recommendations. Findings are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 Findings
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4.1 Enhanced leadership capacity

The findings underscore the significant role of the vCoP in augmenting leadership capacity among school leaders. Through active participation in vCoPs, educational leaders engaged in a dynamic process of knowledge exchange and shared expertise. This collaborative learning environment contributed to an increased leadership capacity by providing leaders with opportunities to acquire diverse insights and perspectives. As one interviewee (P1) put it, “Participating in the vCoP has broadened my perspective on leadership. It is like having a global think tank at my fingertips. I have learned so much from my peers in these virtual community’.

In more details, school leaders contented that they experienced a substantial enhancement of their leadership capacity, particularly in the domains of instructional leadership, distributed leadership, and digital leadership, through their active participation in the vCoP.

4.1.1 Instructional leadership

In terms of instructional leadership, the vCoP emerges as a powerful platform for school leaders to shape teaching and learning practices collaboratively. Leaders who participate in vCoPs tend to exhibit a deeper commitment to instructional leadership by leveraging the collective wisdom of the community. Moreover, the vCoP was viewed as means for facilitating dialogue among school leaders, enabling them to offer constructive feedback to peers and support each other’s professional growth. As (P7) shared, “In vCoPs, we discuss innovative teaching methods and share resources that have a direct impact on learning in the classrooms. It was a game-changer for me as an instructional leader, during Covid-19 where I learned what online learning was only through it. I continue to learn now hints and tips that I share with my teachers during our meetings or post-classroom observations’.

Moreover, vCoPs serve as a conduit for sharing best practices related to pedagogy, curriculum development, and student engagement, translating into improved teaching practices and ultimately benefiting student achievement. As (P1) stated: ‘Our participation in the vCoP has reshaped our roles as instructional leaders providing us with a wellspring of innovative ideas and practical strategies at our fingertips to drive positive change’.

4.1.2 Digital leadership

Furthermore findings underscore the transformative potential of digital leadership within vCoPs. School leaders’ tend to embrace digital leadership going beyond technological competence; and getting involved in the strategic use of digital tools to drive innovation and improvement in their schools. As one participant (P12) noted, ‘These communities have helped me refine my digital leadership skills. Digital leadership in vCoPs is more than about using technology, it is a mindset fostering a culture of digital innovation and data-driven decision-making’.

4.1.3 Distributed leadership

Additionally, the concept of distributed leadership within vCoPs was highlighted through the collaborative nature of leadership development. The findings emphasize that vCoPs inherently foster a distributed leadership model. As school leader who actively engage with peers in vCoPs, as well as other teachers, tends to understand the power of shared ownership and transfer this into their school settings. As (P15) attested, “vCoPs promote a sense of shared leadership. I have had the opportunity to contribute my ideas and collaborate with other school leaders and interact with teachers from diverse backgrounds, which has been empowering. I have learned the power of this inclusive approach to school leadership, and transferred it to my school’.

4.2 Collective efficacy

Another emergent theme from this study is collective efficacy. This theme underscores how active engagement within these online communities not only nurtures shared beliefs about the capacity for change but also cultivates a contagious optimism that permeates the participants’ professional identities. As participant (P9) expressed, “In the vCoP I witnessed a mind shift and a stronger belief that I can tackle school challenges with confidence. I think each principal that you will be interviewing will say the same, because this mind shift was contagious’.

4.2.1 Shared beliefs

First, school leaders thought that their participation in the vCoP consistently nurtured shared beliefs amongst themselves regarding their collective ability to drive change within their educational settings. Through dynamic discussions and knowledge exchange, a shared conviction emerged that they possessed the collective potential to bring about meaningful transformation. Participant P3 captured this, stating, “In our vCoP, we have cultivated shared beliefs about our collective capacity to ignite change in education’. This shared belief system became a driving force, inspiring participants to embark on ambitious endeavors and explore innovative solutions in their educational roles.

4.2.2 Social Influence

This shared belief appeared to transcend individual perspectives, thanks to the power of social influence, forming a cohesive front of change agents who firmly believe in their capacity to bring about positive transformations. In fact, school principals attested that they were positively affected by the contagious optimism within the community, which solidified their belief in their roles as agents of change for their school communities. As (P15) described, ‘Our involvement in the vCoP created a ripple effect of contagious optimism. It bolstered our confidence and equipped us with strategies to inspire change within our schools’.

4.3 Differentiated leadership development

A significant finding stemming from school leaders’ engagement in the vCoP is the concept of differentiated leadership development. Through active participation in these online communities, school leaders experienced a tailored and personalized approach to their own leadership growth. This differentiated development emerged as a key theme, highlighting the ability of vCoPs to cater to the diverse needs and challenges faced by educational leaders. Participants in vCoPs reported that the knowledge exchange, peer support, and collaborative problem-solving inherent in these communities allowed them to target their professional growth areas effectively. As a result, they could address specific leadership challenges and adapt their leadership styles to better meet the evolving needs of their school communities.

4.3.1 Personalized learning paths

In fact, school leaders emphasized vCoP’s role in offering personalized learning ecosystems. Participants within these communities have the autonomy to choose the knowledge, resources, and interactions that align with their specific learning objectives. This freedom empowers them to design their learning paths, focusing on areas that resonate with their professional growth and challenges. As participant P5 stated, ‘In vCoPs, I found a space where my professional growth was not one-size-fits-all. It was like having a personalized leadership development plan tailored to my needs and challenges’. This personalized approach allowed school leaders to target their growth areas effectively, addressing specific leadership challenges.

4.3.2 Flexibility

Flexibility emerged as another facet of differentiated leadership development within vCoPs. School principals described how the adaptable nature of these online communities empowered them to develop their leadership skills in a manner that accommodated their hectic schedules and ever-evolving professional needs. With the asynchronous nature of vCoP interactions and the abundance of available resources, principals had the freedom to curate their own learning experiences. P4 stated that, ‘The best thing about these platforms is that they are recorded, so if I could not attend for an unexpected reason, I can always watch the recording’.

Notably, participants in this study, such as Participant P2, emphasized this adaptability by highlighting how vCoPs provided them with the liberty to explore leadership aspects that were most pertinent to their specific school contexts. In P2’s words, “vCoPs offered me the freedom to delve into leadership facets that directly applied to my school’s unique situation. It’s a personalized approach that acknowledges the distinctiveness of our contexts.”

Similarly, Participant P14 stated, “It’s not solely about develo** leadership; it’s about nurturing the right leadership tailored to the needs of our individual schools.” Furthermore, it is important to note that principals believed they could enroll in professional development events of their choice, aligning with their specific needs, and could do so with minimal cost implications, regardless of their geographical location. P6 noted, ‘With this online community, I travel the world to grow professionally, without paying for flights and accommodation’.

4.4 Supportive safe space

Findings suggest that vCoPs nurtured a supportive safe space that fostered resilience, facilitated robust feedback mechanisms, and supported a heightened sense of group cohesion. vCoPs were described as virtual sanctuaries where school leaders could openly share their experiences, challenges, and vulnerabilities without the fear of judgment, establishing an environment that encourages growth and adaptation.

4.4.1 Resilience

To start with resilience, participants suggested that the sense of belonging and the support they received from peers acted as a cushion against the pressures and uncertainties inherent in educational leadership. Participants frequently noted that the empathetic and understanding community within the vCoP provided them with the strength to bounce back from emotional setbacks with renewed determination. Participant P6 expressed, ‘Our vCoP is like a resilience recharge station. Knowing that others have faced similar obstacles and emerged stronger has given me the resilience to persevere in the face of adversity’.

4.4.2 Feedback mechanisms

Another pivotal element of the supportive safe space within vCoPs is the facilitation of robust feedback mechanisms. Participants highlighted how vCoPs offered a structured platform for seeking and providing feedback on leadership strategies, initiatives, and practices. The culture of open and constructive feedback within vCoPs encouraged participants to reflect on their actions and make informed adjustments. Participant P10 shared, ‘Our vCoP has cultivated a culture of constructive feedback, where we candidly discuss our successes and failures. This feedback loop not only fortifies our decision-making but also expedites our growth as school leaders’.

4.4.3 Group cohesion

Moreover, the strong sense of group cohesion fostered within the vCoP has played a pivotal role in creating the supportive safe space. Participants spoke of the profound camaraderie and solidarity that permeated these virtual communities. The connections forged within the vCoP extended beyond professional discussions, as participants developed deep and lasting relationships with their peers. This group cohesion offered emotional support and validation, further enhancing the sense of safety and belonging. Participant P11 emphasized, “In our vCoP, we’re not just colleagues; we’re some how family after more than two years of collaboration’.

4.5 Key drawbacks

Every aspect has its advantages and disadvantages, and vCoPs are no different. While the findings of this study highlight the positive and bright side of vCoPs, it’s essential to acknowledge that challenges also accompany their implementation. One significant challenge lies in maintaining consistent engagement among members, as educators often contend with time constraints and competing priorities. Additionally, there is a risk of information silos forming within the vCoP, whereby members primarily interact with those who share similar perspectives or experiences.

4.5.1 Challenges in maintaining engagement

Participant perspectives shed light on the hurdles vCoPs face in sustaining member involvement. One participant P8 remarked, ‘While the vCoP offers flexibility and personalized learning paths, kee** members consistently engaged remains a challenge’. This viewpoint is echoed by another participant P4 who stated, “Despite the benefits, I find it difficult to prioritize participation in the vCoP amidst my busy schedule’.

Time constraints and competing priorities emerged as recurring themes among participants, with P6 noting, “Balancing my professional responsibilities with active participation in the vCoP can be daunting’. Additionally, some participants highlighted the importance of perceived relevance, with P7 expressing, “For some, the vCoP may not always feel directly relevant to their immediate needs, leading to fluctuations in participation levels.

4.5.2 Potential for information silos

The potential for information silos within the vCoP emerged as a concern among participants. One participant, P4 stated, ‘While the vCoP aims to foster a supportive environment, there’s a risk of members gravitating towards like-minded individuals, creating information silos’. Likewise, P8 elaborated, stating, “Interacting mainly with those who share similar views or experiences can restrict our exposure to diverse perspectives’.

5 Discussion

This study explored the potential of virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) in facilitating leadership development tailored to the specific needs of school principals. Utilizing a qualitative research approach, the investigation engaged in semi-structured interviews with 16 school principals from K-12 educational institutions within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region.

The findings of this study underscore the impact of vCoPs on enhancing the leadership capacity of school leaders. Active participation in vCoPs facilitated a dynamic process of knowledge exchange and shared expertise, leading to increased leadership capacity. These results align with existing literature highlighting the positive influence of collaborative learning environments on leadership development in the case of CoPs (Turner et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2023). This study adds to the literature, suggesting that vCoPs and CoPs are alike in terms of fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange among educational leaders.

The collaborative nature of vCoPs empowers school leaders to engage in collective problem-solving, share innovative practices, and leverage the collective wisdom of the community to enhance their instructional, distributed, and digital leadership skills. The transformative potential of vCoPs in sha** instructional leadership is particularly noteworthy, as it provides a powerful platform for school leaders to collaboratively shape teaching and learning practices, fostering a deeper commitment to this critical aspect of educational leadership. These findings align with Ghamrawi (2022) who suggested that vCoPs leverage digital leadership skills of its users. Additionally, it aligns with Myers and Washburn (2022) who suggested that vCoPs provide instructional support for teachers. This study, however, goes beyond that suggesting that it leverages instructional literacy of school leaders. As for distributed leadership, the literature suggests that it is an essential element for the development of CoPs and vCoPs by school principals in K-12 settings (Buttram & Farley-Ripple, 2016; Liu et al., 2022; Turner et al., 2018). However, this study suggests that school principals who are involved actively on vCoPs are more likely to endorse distributed leadership in their leadership approaches in their contexts.

Moreover, collective efficacy emerged as a key finding in this study, demonstrating how active participation in vCoPs nurtures shared beliefs about the capacity for change and cultivates contagious optimism among school leaders. These findings resonate with the literature highlighting the importance of collective efficacy of teachers in driving positive change in educational settings (Da’as et al., 2022). This study suggests that vCoPs support school leaders endorse shared beliefs transcending individual perspectives, resulting in a unified front of change agents who firmly believe in their capacity to bring about meaningful transformations. The social influence within vCoPs contributes to this process, solidifying participants’ belief in their roles as change agents. This contagious optimism, catalyzed by social influence and yielding collective efficacy, is an addition to the literature of school leadership and vCoPs, highlighting the crucial role of virtual communities in sha** a collective sense of empowerment among educational leaders.

Furthermore, differentiated leadership development within vCoPs emerged as another key finding, emphasizing the value of tailored and personalized approaches to leadership growth. VCoPs were noted to serve as venues for personalized learning ecosystems, allowing school leaders to curate their learning paths based on their specific needs and challenges. The flexibility inherent in vCoPs supports this individualized approach, accommodating the diverse responsibilities and time constraints faced by school leaders. This flexibility enables school leaders to access resources and engage in discussions at their convenience, eliminating the constraints of rigid schedules. These findings resonate with the collective findings of Lambert and Bouchamma (2021) and Bickmore et al. (2021), highlighting the potential of vCoPs in differentiating leadership development for school principals through their adaptive and responsive features that cater for the distinctive contexts and aspirations of school leaders.

Additionally, the supportive safe space created within vCoPs has been highlighted as a significant finding, fostering resilience, facilitating robust feedback mechanisms, and promoting group cohesion among school leaders. The literature emphasizes the importance of safe and supportive environments for leadership development (Acosta et al., 2019; Lai et al., 2020; Yin et al., 2020). However, this study suggests that vCoPs can potentially provide school leaders with this safe space where they can openly share their experiences, challenges, and vulnerabilities without fear of judgments. The sense of group cohesion fosters emotional support and validation, enhancing the sense of belonging and camaraderie among participants. It seems that the feedback-rich culture within vCoPs supports ongoing reflection and refinement of leadership practices, contributing to continuous improvement.

Finally, one drawback of the vCoP identified in the study aligns with findings in the literature, particularly regarding maintaining engagement. In fact, Thang et al. (2011) highlighted this specific challenge for teacher vCoPs and recommended designing the vCoP to facilitate authentic engagement to address this challenge. The other challenge identified in this study, the potential development of information silos, represents a unique finding and has not been reported previously, to the knowledge of the researchers.

6 Conclusion

Our exploration of Virtual Communities of Practice (vCoPs) and their influence on educational leadership within the GCC region has unveiled a series of interconnected themes that together shed light on the transformative capacity of these digital communities. We found that vCoPs play a pivotal role in enhancing leadership capacity among school principals through collaborative problem-solving and the exchange of innovative practices. However, challenges such as maintaining engagement and potential information silos must be addressed cautiously. Despite these challenges, vCoPs have demonstrated adaptability, catering to diverse needs and empowering personalized growth paths for leaders. Moreover, vCoPs foster collective efficacy and provide a supportive environment for open sharing and reflection.

7 Limitations and recommendations

Inevitably, there were inherent limitations that necessitated acknowledgment within this study. Firstly, the relatively small number of participants involved in this case study, coupled with the specific social context it examined, restrict the extent to which the findings can be generalized. Findings are closely tied to the GCC context, presenting not only a limitation, but also a strength. This is because research addressing school leadership is extremely limited. The findings offer valuable insights into how GCC principals perceive and interpret their professional growth in vCoPs.

While the findings of this study may not be readily generalizable due to the relatively small sample size, educational authorities and policymakers should take into consideration the potential of vCoPs in the realm of school leadership development. The design of these leadership development programs should harness the benefits of technology-enabled learning, providing school leaders with opportunities to foster growth and development within a broader culture of collaboration. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of creating supportive learning environments equipped with clear feedback mechanisms and peer support systems, which in turn nurture resilience and group cohesion.

In light of the study’s findings and the acknowledged limitations, future research endeavors should explore the application of vCoPs in diverse educational contexts beyond the GCC region. This comparative analysis across different cultural and geographical settings could offer deeper insights into the transferability and adaptation of vCoPs in school leadership development. These avenues of research will further enrich our knowledge of the transformative potential of vCoPs in educational leadership.