SpringerLink
Log in

PTSD and Cardiovascular Disease

A Bidirectional Relationship

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Brain and Heart Dynamics

  • 206 Accesses

Abstract

In recent years, epidemiologic research has increasingly documented significant correlations between medical and psychiatric conditions. In most cases, this comorbidity has been shown to enhance morbidity, loss of quality of life, and mortality, implementing maladaptive behaviors and unhealthy lifestyles that inevitably affect physical health, but also to induce or worsen the course and outcomes of mental disorders. The relationship between cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one that gained growing interest in the last decades. In many instances, compared to other mental disorders, PTSD has the peculiarity of having a bidirectionality toward cardiovascular diseases: on one hand, exposure to traumatic events and consequent development of PTSD is now recognized to take an additional toll on physical health, contributing to increased risk for early incident CVDs; on the other hand, having CVDs can represent a severe stress for vulnerable individuals, leading to the onset of a PTSD symptomatology. From this perspective, the present chapter aims to reviewing and summarizing recent knowledge on the relationship among PTSD and CVDs, devoting special attention to factors that may contribute to bidirectionality toward both diseases.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: Author; 2013.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  2. Sareen J, Cox BJ, Stein MB, Afifi TO, Fleet C, Asmundson GJ. Physical and mental comorbidity, disability, and suicidal behavior associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in a large community sample. Psychosom Med. 2007;69:242–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Burg MM, Soufer R. Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2016;18(10):94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Edmondson D, von Känel R. Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017;4(4):320–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30377-7. Epub 2017 Jan 19. Review. PubMed PMID: 28109646; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5499153

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Carmassi C, Stratta P, Massimetti G, Bertelloni CA, Conversano C, Cremone IM, Miccoli M, Baggiani A, Rossi A, Dell’Osso L. New DSM-5 maladaptive symptoms in PTSD: gender differences and correlations with mood spectrum symptoms in a sample of high school students following survival of an earthquake. Ann General Psychiatry. 2014;13:28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-014-0028-9. eCollection 2014. PubMed PMID: 25670961; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4322820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Dell’osso L, Carmassi C, Stratta P, Massimetti G, Akiskal KK, Akiskal HS, Maremmani I, Rossi A. Gender differences in the relationship between maladaptive behaviors and post-traumatic stress disorder. A study on 900 L’ Aquila 2009 Earthquake Survivors. Front Psych. 2013;3:111. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00111. eCollection 2012. PubMed PMID: 23293608; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3537190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Carmassi C, Bertelloni CA, Gesi C, Conversano C, Stratta P, Massimetti G, Rossi A, Dell’Osso L. New DSM-5 PTSD guilt and shame symptoms among Italian earthquake survivors: Impact on maladaptive behaviors. Psychiatry Res. 2017;251:142–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.11.026. Epub 2016 Nov 22. PubMedPMID: 28199913

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Edmonson D, Kronish IM, Shaffer A, Falzon L, Burg MM. Post traumatic stress disorder and Risk for Coronary Heart Disease: a meta-analytic review. Am Heart J. 2013;166(5):806–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Glaesmer H, Brahler E, Gundel H, Riedel-Heller SG. The association of traumatic experiences and posttraumatic stress disorder with physical morbidity in old age: a German population-based study. Psychosom Med. 2011;73:401–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Koenen KC, Galea S. Post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic disease: open questions and future directions. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2015;50:511–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Koenen KC, Sumner JA, Gilsanz P, Glymour MM, Ratanatharathorn A, Rimm EB, Roberts AL, Winning A, Kubzansky LD. Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiometabolic disease: improving causal inference to inform practice. Psychol Med. 2016;47(2):209–25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Lohr JB, Palmer BW, Eidt CA, Aailaboyina S, Mausbach BT, Wolkowitz OM, Thorp SR, Jeste DV. Is post-traumatic stress disorder associated with premature senescence? A review of the literature. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr. 2015;23:709–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Gander ML, von Kanel R. Myocardial infarction and post-traumatic stress disorder: frequency, outcome, and atherosclerotic mechanisms. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2006;13:165–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Edmonson D, Sumner JA, Kronish IM, Burg MM, Oyesiku L, Schwartz JE. The association of PTSD with clinic and ambulatory blood pressure in healthy adults. Psychosom Med. 2017;80(1):55–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Goldstein BI, Carnethon MR, Matthews KA, McIntyre RS, Miller GE, Raghuveer G, Stoney CM, Wasiak H, McCrindle BW, American Heart Association Atherosclerosis, Hypertension and Obesity in Youth Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. Major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder predispose youth to accelerated atherosclerosis and early cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015;132(10):965–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Fu SS, McFall M, Saxon AJ, Beckham JC, Carmody TP, Baker DG, Joseph AM. Post-traumatic stress disorder and smoking: a systematic review. Nicotine Tob Res. 2007;9(11):1071–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. McFarlane AC. Epidemiological evidence about the relationship between ptsd and alcohol abuse: the nature of the association. Addict Behav. 1998;23(6):813–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Cohen BE, Marmar C, Ren L, Bertenthal D, Seal KH. Association of cardiovascular risk factors with mental health diagnoses in Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans using VA health care. JAMA. 2009;302(5):489–92. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1084. PubMed PMID: 19654382

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. von Känel R, Hepp U, Traber R, Kraemer B, Mica L, Keel M, Mausbach BT, Schnyder U. Measures of endothelial dysfunction in plasma of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2008;158(3):363–73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. von Känel R, Hepp U, Kraemer B, Traber R, Keel M, Mica L, Schnyder U. Evidence for low-grade systemic proinflammatory activity in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2007;41(9):744–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Spitzer C, Barnow S, Völzke H, John U, Freyberger HJ, Grabe HJ. Trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and physical illness: findings from the general population. Psychosom Med. 2009;71:1012–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sawchuk CN, Roy-Byrne P, Goldberg J, Manson S, Noonan C, Beals J, et al. The relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and cardiovascular disease in an American Indian tribe. Psychol Med. 2005;35:1785–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Pietrzak RH, Goldstein RB, Southwick SM, Grant BF. Medical comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in United States adults: results from wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Psychosom Med. 2011;73:697–707.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Kubzansky LD, Koenen KC, Spiro A 3rd, Vokonas PS, Sparrow D. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64(1):109–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Boscarino JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder and mortality among U.S. army veterans 30 years after military service. Ann Epidemiol. 2006;16:248–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Boscarino JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical illness: results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1032:141–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Beristianos MH, Yaffe K, Cohen B, Byers AL. PTSD and risk of incident cardiovascular disease in aging veterans. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;24:192–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Sumner JA, Kubzansky LD, Kabrhel C, Roberts AL, Chen Q, Winning A, Gilsanz P, Rimm EB, Glymour MM, Koenen KC. Associations of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress symptoms with venous thromboembolism over 22 years in women. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5(5):e003197.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Sachs-Ericsson N, Blazer D, Plant EA, Arnow B. Childhood sexual and physical abuse and the 1-year prevalence of medical problems in the National Comorbidity Survey. Health Psychol. 2005;24:32–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Ahmadi N, Hajsadeghi F, Mirshkarlo HB, Budoff M, Yehuda R, Ebrahimi R. Post-traumatic stress disorder, coronary atherosclerosis, and mortality. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108:29–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Gradus JL, Farkas DK, Svensson E, Ehrenstein V, Lash TL, Milstein A, Adler N, Sørensen HT. Associations between stress disorders and cardiovascular disease events in the Danish population. BMJ Open. 2015;5(12):e009334.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Dennis PA, Watkins LL, Calhoun PS, Oddone A, Sherwood A, Dennis MF, Rissling MB, Beckham JC. Posttraumatic stress, heart rate variability, and the mediating role of behavioral health risks. Psychosom Med. 2014;76:629–37.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Scherrer JF, Chrusciel T, Zeringue A, Garfield LD, Hauptman PJ, Lustman PJ, Freedland KE, Carney RM, Bucholz KK, Owen R. Anxiety disorders increase risk for incident myocardial infarction in depressed and nondepressed Veterans Administration patients. Am Heart J. 2010;159:772–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Boscarino JA. Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease link: time to identify specific pathways and interventions. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108(7):1052–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Burg MM, Brandt C, Buta E, Schwartz J, Bathulapalli H, Dziura J, Edmondson DE, Haskell S. Risk for incident hypertension associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in military veterans and the effect of posttraumatic stress disorder treatment. Psychosom Med. 2017;79(2):181–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Boscarino JA. Psychobiologic predictors of disease mortality after psychological trauma: implications for research and clinical surveillance. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2008;196:100–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Yehuda R. Advances in understanding neuroendocrine alterations in PTSD and their therapeutic implications. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1071:137–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Yehuda R, LeDoux J. Response variation following trauma: a translational neuroscience approach to understanding PTSD. Neuron. 2007;56:19–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Munck A, Guyre PM, Holbrook NJ. Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocr Rev. 1984;5(1):25–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Mason JW, Giller EL, Kosten TR, Ostroff RB, Podd L. Urinary free-cortisol levels in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1986;174(3):145–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Yehuda R, Teicher MH, Trestman RL, Levengood RA, Siever LJ. Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: a chronobiological analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40:79–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Dell’Osso L, Da Pozzo E, Carmassi C, Trincavelli ML, Ciapparelli A, Martini C. Lifetime manic-hypomanic symptoms in post-traumatic stress disorder: relationship with the 18 kDa mitochondrial translocator protein density. Psychiatry Res. 2010;177(1–2):139–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Martini C, Da Pozzo E, Carmassi C, Cuboni S, Trincavelli ML, Massimetti G, Marazziti D, Dell’Osso L. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate responsive element binding protein in post-traumatic stress disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2013;14(5):396–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Shah AJ, Lampert R, Goldberg J, Veledar E, Bremner JD, Vaccarino V. Posttraumatic stress disorder and impaired autonomic modulation in male twins. Archival report. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73:1103–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Rozanski A, Blumenthal JA, Davidson KW, Saab PG, Kubzansky L. The epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of psychosocial risk factors in cardiac practice: the emerging field of behavioral cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:637–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Haensel A, Mills PJ, Nelesen RA, Ziegler MG, Dimsdale JE. The relationship between heart rate variability and inflammatory markers in cardiovascular diseases. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2008;33(10):1305–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Tsuji H, Venditti FJ Jr, Manders ES, Evans JC, Larson MG, Feldman CL, Levy D. Reduced heart rate variability and mortality risk in an elderly cohort. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1994;90(2):878–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Bigger JT Jr, Fleiss JL, Steinman RC, Rolnitzky LM, Kleiger RE, Rottman JN. Frequency domain measures of heart period variability and mortality after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1992;85(1):164–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Buckley TC, Kaloupek DG. A meta-analytic examination of basal cardiovascular activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychosom Med. 2001;63(4):585–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Pole N. The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2007;133(5):725–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Boscarino JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder, exposure to combat, and lower plasma cortisol among Vietnam veterans: findings and clinical implications. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64(1):191–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Heim C, Newport DJ, Wagner D, Wilcox MM, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. The role of early adverse experience and adulthood stress in the prediction of neuroendocrine stress reactivity in women: a multiple regression analysis. Depress Anxiety. 2002;15(3):117–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Fries E, Hesse J, Hellhammer J, Hellhammer DH. A new view on hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30(10):1010–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Tracey KJ. The inflammatory reflex. Nature. 2002;420:853–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Maripuu M, Wikgren M, Karling P, Adolfsson R, Norrback KF. Relative hypocortisolism is associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome in recurrent affective disorders. J Affect Disord. 2016;204:187–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Passos IC, Vasconcelos-Moreno MP, Costa LG, Kunz M, Brietzke E, Quevedo J, Salum G, Magalhães PV, Kapczinski F, Kauer-Sant’Anna M. Inflammatory markers in post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2(11):1002–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Pace TW, Heim CM. A short review on the psychoneuroimmunology of posttraumatic stress disorder: from risk factors to medical comorbidities. Brain Behav Immun. 2011;25:6–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Baker DG, Nievergelt CM, O’Connor DT. Biomarkers of PTSD: neuropeptides and immune signaling. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62:663–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Ross R. Atherosclerosis – an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(2):115–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Pace TWW, Wingenfeld K, Schmidt I, Meinlschmidt G, Hellhammer DH, Heim CM. Increased peripheral NF-kappa B pathway activity in women with childhood abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26:13–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Bierhaus A, Nawroth PP. Modulation of the vascular endothelium during infection – the role of NF-kappa B activation. Contrib Microbiol. 2003;10:86–105.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Munck A, Náray-Fejes-Tóth A. Glucocorticoids and stress: permissive and suppressive actions. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1994;746:115–30.. discussion 131-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Van Zuiden M, Kavelaars A, Geuze E, Olff M, Heijnen CJ. Predicting PTSD: pre-existing vulnerabilities in glucocorticoid-signaling and implications for preventive interventions. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;30:12–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Willerson JT, Kereiakes DJ. Endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2003;108:2060–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation. 2003;108:2054–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Grenon SM, Owens CD, Alley H, Perez S, Whooley MA, Neylan TC, Aschbacher K, Gasper WJ, Hilton JF, Cohen BE. Posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with worse endothelial function among veterans. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5(3):e003010.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Kibler JL, Joshi K, Ma M. Hypertension in relation to posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in the US national comorbidity study. Behav Med. 2008;34:125–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Kibler JL. Posttraumatic stress and cardiovascular disease risk. J Trauma Dissociation. 2009;10:135–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Andersen J, Wade M, Possemato K, Ouimette P. Association between posttraumatic stress disorder and primary care providerdiagnosed disease among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Psychosom Med. 2010;72:498–504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Granado NS, Smith TC, Swanson GM, Harris RB, Shahar E, Smith B, Boyko EJ, Wells TS, Ryan MA, Millennium Cohort Study Team. Newly reported hypertension after military combat deployment in a large population-based study. Hypertension. 2009;54(5):966–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Rozanski A, Blumenthal JA, Davidson KA, Saab PG, Kubzansky L. The epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of psychosocial risk factors in cardiac practice. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:637–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Davidson JR, Hughes D, Blazer DG, George LK. Post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: an epidemiological study. Psychol Med. 1991;21:713–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Breslau N, Davis GC, Schultz LR. Posttraumatic stress disorder and the incidence of nicotine, alcohol, and other drug disorders in persons who have experienced trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:289–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Calhoun PS, Elter JR, Jones ER Jr, Kudler H, Straits-Tröster K. Hazardous alcohol use and receipt of risk-reduction counseling among U.S. veterans of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69:1686–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Smith B, Ryan MAK, Wingard DL, Patterson TL, Slymen DJ, Macera CA. Cigarette smoking and military deployment: a prospective evaluation. Am J Prev Med. 2008;35:539–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Kronish IM, Edmondson D, Li Y, Cohen BE. Post-traumatic stress disorder and medication adherence: results from the Mind Your Heart study. J Psychiatr Res. 2012;46:1595–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Glodich A, Allen JG. Adolescents exposed to violence and abuse: a review of the group therapy literature with an emphasis on preventing trauma reenactment. J Child Adolesc Group Therapy. 1998;8(3):135–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Maher MJ, Rego SA, Asnis GM. Sleep disturbances in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: epidemiology, impact and approaches to management. CNS Drugs. 2006;20(7):567–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Cappuccio FP, Cooper D, D’Elia L, Strazzullo P, Miller MA. Sleep duration predicts cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur Heart J. 2011;32:1484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A, Bittencourt MS, Callaway CW, Carson AP, Chamberlain AM, Chang AR, Cheng S, Das SR, Delling FN, Djousse L, MSV E, Ferguson JF, Fornage M, Jordan LC, Khan SS, Kissela BM, Knutson KL, Kwan TW, Lackland DT, Lewis TT, Lichtman JH, Longenecker CT, Loop MS, Lutsey PL, Martin SS, Matsushita K, Moran AE, Mussolino ME, O’Flaherty M, Pandey A, Perak AM, Rosamond WD, Roth GA, UKA S, Satou GM, Schroeder EB, Shah SH, Spartano NL, Stokes A, Tirschwell DL, Tsao CW, Turakhia MP, LB VW, Wilkins JT, Wong SS, Virani SS, American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2019 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019;139(10):e56–e528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Timmis A, Townsend N, Gale C, Grobbee R, Maniadakis N, Flather M, Wilkins E, Wright L, Vos R, Bax J, Blum M, Pinto F, Vardas P, ESC Scientific Document Group. European Society of Cardiology: cardiovascular disease statistics 2017. Eur Heart J. 2018;39(7):508–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Awaida JP, Dupuis J, Théroux P, Pelletier G, Joyal M, De Guise P, Doucet S, Bilodeau L, Thibault B, Tanguay JF, Gallo R, Grégoire J, L’Allier PL, Macle L, Nigam A. Demographics, treatment and outcome of acute coronary syndromes: 17 years of experience in a specialized cardiac centre. Can J Cardiol. 2006;22(2):121–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Théroux P, Willerson JT, Armstrong PW. Progress in the treatment of acute coronary syndromes: a 50-year perspective (1950–2000). Circulation. 2000;102:IV2–IV13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Cohen BE, Edmondson D, Kronish IM. State of the art review: depression, stress, anxiety, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Hypertens. 2015;28(11):1295–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Tully PJ, Harrison NJ, Cheung P, Cosh S. Anxiety and cardiovascular disease risk: a review. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2016;18(12):120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Kutz I, Shabtai H, Solomon Z, Neumann M, David D. Post-traumatic stress disorder in myocardial infarction patients: prevalence study. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 1994;31(1):48–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Alonzo AA. The experience of chronic illness and post-traumatic stress disorder: the consequences of cumulative adversity. Soc Sci Med. 2000;50(10):1475–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  89. van Driel RC, den Velde Wybrand O. Myocardial infarction and post traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 1995;8(1):151–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Gulielmos V, Eller M, Theile S, Dill HM, Jost T, Tagtekin SM, Schueler S. Influence of median sternotomy on the psychosomatic outcome in coronary artery single-vessel bypass grafting. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1999;16(Suppl2):s34–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Edmondson D. An enduring somatic threat model of posttraumatic stress disorder due to acute life-threatening medical events. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2014;8(3):118–34.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Fox KAA, Dabbous OH, Goldberg RJ, Pieper KS, Eagle KA, Van de Werf F, Avezum A, Goodman SG, Anderson F Jr, Granger CB. Prediction of risk of death and myocardial infarction in the six months after presentation with acute coronary syndrome: prospective multinational observational study (GRACE). BMJ. 2006;333(7578):1091.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Goldberg RJ, Currie K, White K, Brieger D, Steg PG, Goodman SG, Gore JM. Six-month outcomes in a multinational registry of patients hospitalized with an acute coronary syndrome (The Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events [GRACE]). Am J Cardiol. 2004;93(3):288–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Ay H, Gungor L, Arsava EM, Rosand J, Vangel M, Benner T, Schwamm LH, Furie KL, Koroshetz WJ, Sorensen AG. A score to predict early risk of recurrence after ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2010;4(2):128–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Tang EW, Wong CK, Herbison P. Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE) hospital discharge risk score accurately predicts long-term mortality post acute coronary syndrome. Am Heart J. 2007;153(1):29–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Edmondson D, Park CL, Chaudoir SR, Wortmann JH. Death without God: religious struggle, death concerns, and depression in the terminally ill. Psychol Sci. 2008;19(8):754–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Bennett P, Owen RL, Koutsakis S, Bisson J. Personality, social context and cognitive predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder in myocardial infarction patients. Psychol Health. 2002;17(4):489–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Doerfler LA, Paraskos JA, Piniarski L. Relationship of quality of life and perceived control with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms 3 to 6 months after myocardial infarction. J Cardpulm Rehabil. 2005;25(3):166–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Pedersen SS, Middel B, Larsen ML. Posttraumatic stress disorder in first time myocardial infarction patients. Heart Lung. 2003;32(5):300–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Green BL, Rowland JH, Krupnick JL, Epstein SA, Stockton P, Stern NM, Spertus IL, Steakley C. Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in women with breast cancer. Psychosomatics. 1998;39(2):102–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Moazen-Zadeh E, Khoshdel A, Avakh F, Rahmani A. Increased blood pressures in veterans with post traumatic stress disorder. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2016;51(6):576–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Hawk LW, Dougall AL, Ursano RJ, Baum A. Urinary catecholamines and cortisol in recent-onset posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Psychosom Med. 2000;62(3):423–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Miller RJ, Sutherland AG, Hutchison JD, Alexander DA. C-reactive protein and interleukin 6 receptor in post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Cytokine. 2001;13(4):253–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Edmondson D, Rieckmann N, Edmondson D, Rieckmann N, Shaffer JA, Schwartz JE, Burg MM, Davidson KW, Klemow L, Shimbo D, Kronish IM. Posttraumatic stress due to an acute coronary syndrome increases risk of 42-month major adverse cardiac events and all-cause mortality. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(12):1621–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. Shemesh E, Yehuda R, Milo O, Dinur I, Rudnick A, Vered Z, Cotter G. Posttraumatic Stress, non-adherence, and adverse outcomes on survivors of a myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(4):521–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Kronish IM, Edmondson D, Goldfinger JZ, Fei K, Horowitz CR. Posttraumatic stress disorder and adherence to medications in survivors of strokes and transient ischemic attacks. Stroke. 2012;43(8):2192–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Dell’Osso L, Carmassi C, Rucci P, Conversano C, Shear MK, Calugi S, Maser JD, Endicott J, Fagiolini A, Cassano GB. A multidimensional spectrum approach to post-traumatic stress disorder: comparison between the Structured Clinical Interview for Trauma and Loss Spectrum (SCI-TALS) and the Self-Report instrument (TALS-SR). Compr Psychiatry. 2009;50(5):485–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. von Känel R, Begrè S, Abbas CC, Saner H, Gander ML, Schmid JP. Inflammatory biomarkers in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder caused by myocardial infarction and the role of depressive symptoms. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2010;17(1):39–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Vilchinsky N, Ginzburg K, Fait K, Foa EB. Cardiac-disease-induced PTSD (CDI-PTSD): a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017;55:92–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Castilla C, Vazquez C. Stress related symptoms and positive emotions after myocardial infarction: a longitudinal analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2011;2 https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v2i0.8082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Gao W, Zhao J, Li Y, Cao FL. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in first-time myocardial infarction patients: roles of attachment and alexithymia. J Adv Nurs. 2015;71(11):2575–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Meister RE, Weber T, Princip M, Schnyder U, Barth J, Znoj H, Schmid JP, von Känel R. Perception of a hectic hospital environment at admission relates to acute stress disorder symptoms in myocardial infarction patients. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2016;39:8.14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Oflaz S, Yüksel Ş, Şen F, Özdemiroğlu F, Kurt R, Oflaz H, Kaşikcioğlu E. Does illness perception predict posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with myocardial infarction? Noro Psikiyatr Ars. 2014;51(2):103–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Sheldrick R, Tarrier N, Berry E, Kincey J. Post-traumatic stress disorder and illness perceptions over time following myocardial infarction and sub arachnoid hemorrhage. Br J Health Psychol. 2006;11:387–400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Roberge MA, Dupuis G, Marchande A. Post-traumatic stress disorder following myocardial infarction: prevalence and risk factors. Can J Cardiol. 2010;26(5):e170–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Doerfler LA. Posttraumatic stress disorder-like symptoms 1 week to 3 months after myocardial infarction. Int J Rehab Health. 1997;3:89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Girard TD, Shintani AK, Jackson AC, Gordon SM, Pun BT, Henderson MS, Dittus RS, Bernard GR, Ely EW. Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms following critical illness requiring prospective cohort study. Crit Care. 2007;11(1):R28.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  118. Wikman A, Bhattacharyya M, Perkins-Poraz L, Steptoe A. Persistence of posttraumatic stress symptoms 12 and 36 months after acute coronary syndrome. Psychosom Med. 2008;70(7):764–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Ginzburg K, Ein-Dor T, Solomon Z. Comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression: a 20-year longitudinal study of war veterans. J Affect Disord. 2010;123(1–3):249–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, Schultz LR, Davis GC, Andreski P. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit area survey of trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55(7):626–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Frans O, Rimmö PA, Aberg L, Fredrikson M. Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2005;111(4):291–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Goldstein RB, Smith SM, Chou SP, Saha TD, Jung J, Zhang H, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ, Huang B, Grant BF. The epidemiology of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016;51(8):1137–48.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Carmassi C, Dell’Osso L, Manni C, Candini V, Dagani J, Iozzino L, Koenen KC, de Girolamo G. Frequency of trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder in Italy: analysis from the World Mental Health Survey Initiative. J Psychiatr Res. 2014;59:77–84.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  124. Edmonson D, Richardson S, Falzon L, Davidson KW, Mills MA, Neria Y. Posttraumatic stress disorder prevalence and risk of recurrence in acute coronary syndrome patients: a meta-analytic review. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e38915.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. O’Reilly SM, Grubb N, O’Carroll RE. Long-term emotional consequencesof in-hospital cardiac arrest and myocardial infarction. Br J Clin Psychol. 2004;43:83–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Ladwig KH, Schoefinius A, Dammann G, Danner R, Gürtler R, Herrmann R. Long-acting psychotraumatic properties of a cardiac arrest experience. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(6):912–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Gamper G, Willeit M, Sterz F, Herkner H, Zoufaly A, Hornik K, Havel C, Laggner AN. Life after death: posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of cardiac arrest: prevalence, associated factors, and the influence of sedation and analgesia. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(2):378–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Habibović M, van den Broek KC, Alings M, Van der Voort PH, Denollet J. Posttraumatic stress 18 months following cardioverter defibrillator implantation: shocks, anxiety, and personality. Health Psychol. 2012;31(2):186–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Lang S, Becker R, Wilke S, Hartmann M, Herzog W, Loewe B. Anxiety disorders in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: frequency, course, predictors, and patients’ requests for treatment. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2014;37(1):35–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Morken IM, Bru E, Norekval TM, Larsen AI, Idsoe T, Karlsen B. Perceived support from healthcare professionals, shock anxiety and posttraumatic stress in implantable cardioverter defibrillator recipients. J Clin Nurs. 2014;23(3–4):450–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. von Känel R, Baumert J, Kolb C, Cho EYN, Ladwig KH. Chronic posttraumatic stress and its predicators in patients living with implantable cardioverter defibrillator. J Affect Disord. 2011;131(1–3):344–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Matchett M, Sears SF, Hazelton G, Kirian K, Wilson E, Nekkanti R. The implantable cardioverter defibrillator: its history, current psychological impact and future. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2009;6(1):43–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Oxlad M, Wade TD. Longitudinal risk factors for adverse psychological functioning six months after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J Health Psychol. 2008;13(1):79–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Oxlad M, Stubberfield J, Stuklis R, Edwards J, Wade TD. Psychological risk factors for increased post-operative length of hospital stay following Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery. J Behav Med. 2006;29(2):179–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Boyer BA, Matour SJ, Crittenden KB, Larsen KA, Cox JM, Link DD. Appraisals of fear, helplessness, and perceived life-threat during emergent cardiac surgery: relationship to pre-surgical depression, trauma history, and posttraumatic stress. J Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2013;20(2):173–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Dew MA, Ruth LH, Schulberg HC, Simmons RG, Kormos RL, Trzepacz PT, Griffith BP. Prevalence and predictors of depression and anxiety-related disorders during the year after heart transplantation. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1996;18(6):48S–61S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Dew MA, Kormos RL, Ruth LH, Murali S, DiMartini AF, Griffith BP. Early post-transplant medical compliance and mental health predict physical morbidity and mortality one to three years after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1999;18(6):549–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Roberge MA, Dupuis G, Marchand A. Acute stress disorder after myocardial infarction: prevalence and associated factors. Psychosom Med. 2008;70(9):1028–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Wikman A, Messerli-Bürgy N, Molloy GJ, Randall G, Perkins-Porras L, Steptoe A. Symptom experience during acute coronary syndrome and the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms. J Behav Med. 2012;35(4):420–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Dew MA, Kormos RL, DiMartini AF, Switzer GE, Schulberg HC, Roth LH, Griffith BP. Prevalence and risk of depression and anxiety-related disorders during the first three years after heart transplantation. Psychosomatics. 2001;42(4):300–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Stukas AA, Dew MA, Switzer GE, DiMartini A, Kormos RL, Griffith BP. PTSD in heart transplant recipients and their primary family caregivers. Psychosomatics. 1999;40(3):212–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Wei J, Rook C, Ramadan R, Shah AJ, Bremner JD, Quyyumi AA, Kutner M, Vaccarino V. Meta-analysis of mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia and subsequent cardiac events in patients with coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 2014;114(2):187–92.. Eliminato da page. 15

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  143. Wiedemar L, Schmid J-P, Muller J, Wittmann L, Schnyder U, Saner H, von Kanel R. Prevalence and predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Heart Lung. 2008;37(2):113–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Berkman LF, Blumenthal J, Burg M, Carney RM, Catellier D, Cowan MJ, Czajkowski SM, DeBusk R, Hosking J, Jaffe A, Kaufmann PG, Mitchell P, Norman J, Powell LH, Raczynski JM, Schneiderman N, Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Artery Disease Patients Investigators (ENRICHD). Effects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after myocardial infarction: The Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease Patients (ENRICHD) randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;289(3):3106–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Ginzburg K, Solomon Z, Koifman B, Keren G, Roth A, Kriwisky M, Kutz I, David D, Bleich A. Trajectories of posttraumatic stress disorder following myocardial infarction: a prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(10):1217–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Wang X, Chung MC, Hyland ME, Bahkeit M. Posttraumatic stress disorder and psychiatric co-morbidity following stroke: the role of alexithymia. Psychiatry Res. 2011;188(1):51–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Solomon Z, Mikulincer M, Avitzur E. Co**, locus of control, social support, and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective study. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1988;55(2):279–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Tsai YC, Pai HC. Burden and cognitive appraisal of stroke survivors’ informal caregivers: an assessment of depression model with mediating and moderating effects. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2016;30(2):237–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Versteeg H, Theuns DAMJ, Erdman RMA, Jordaens L, Pedersen SS. Posttraumatic stress in implantable cardioverter defibrillator patients: the role of preimplantation distress and shocks. Int J Cardiol. 2011;2(4):242–50.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Ladwig KH, Baumert J, Marten-Mittag B, Kolb C, Zrenner B, Schmitt C. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and predicted mortality in patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65(11):1324–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Rothenhousler HB, Grieser B, Nollert G, Reichart B, Schelling G, Kapfhahmmer HP. Psychiatric and psychosocial outcome of cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass: a prospective 12-month follow-up study. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2005;27(1):18–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Schelling G, Richter M, Roozendaal B, Rothenhäusler HB, Krauseneck T, Stoll C, Nollert G, Schmidt M, Kapfhammer HP. Exposure to high stress in the intensive care unit may have negative effects on health-related quality-of-life outcomes after cardiac surgery. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(7):1971–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Ginzburg K, Ein-Dor T. Posttraumatic stress syndromes and health-related quality of life following myocardial infarction: 8-year follow-up. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011;33(6):565–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Abbas CC, Schmid JP, Guler E, Wiedemar L, Begré S, Saner H, Schnyder U, von Kanel R. Trajectory of posttraumatic stress disorder caused by myocardial infarction: a two-year follow-up study. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2009;39(4):359–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Tarsitani L, Santis VD, Mistretta M, Parmigiani G, Zampetti G, Roselli V, Vitale D, Tritapepe L, Biondi M, Picardi A. Treatment with b-blockers and incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder after cardiac surgery: a prospective observational study. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2012;26(2):265–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Favaro A, Gerosa G, Caforio ALP, Volpe B, Rupolo G, Zarneri D, Boscolo S, Pavan C, Tenconi E, d’Agostino C, Moz M, Torregrossa G, Feltrin G, Gambino A, Santonostaso P. Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in heart transplantation recipients: the relationship with outcome and adherence to medical treatment. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011;33(1):1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Kollner V, Schade I, Maulhardt T, Maercker A, Joraschky P, Gulielmos V. Posttraumatic stress disorder and quality of life after heart or lung transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2002;34(6):2192–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Horowitz M, Wilner N, Alvarez W. Impact of event scale: a measure of subjective stress. Psychosom Med. 1979;41(3):209–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Ginzburg K, Kutz I, Koifman B, Roth A, Kriwisky M, David D, Bleich A. Acute stress disorder symptoms predict all-cause mortality among myocardial infarction patients: a 15-year longitudinal study. Ann Behav Med. 2016;50(2):177–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. von Känel R, Hari R, Schmid JP, Wiedemar L, Guler E, Barth J, Saner H, Schnyder U, Begré S. Non-fatal cardiovascular outcome in patients with posttraumatic stress symptoms caused by myocardial infarction. J Cardiol. 2011;58(1):61–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Shemesh E, Rudnick A, Kuloski E, Milovanov O, Salah A, Alon D, Dinur I, Blatt A, Metzkor M, Golik A, Verd Z, Cotter G. A prospective study of Post-traumatic stress symptoms and non-adherence in survivors of a myocardial infarction. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2001;23(4):215–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Gill JM, Saligan L, Woods S, Page G. PTSD is associated with an excess of inflammatory immune activities. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2009;45(4):262–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Brudey C, Park J, Wiaderkiewicz J, Kobayashi I, Mellman TA, Marvar PJ. Autonomic and inflammatory consequences of posttraumatic stress disorder and the link to cardiovascular disease. Am J Phys. 2015;309(4):R315–21.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Croghan IT, Hurt RD, Dakhil SR, Croghan GA, Sloan JA, Novotny PJ, Rowland KM, Bernath A, Loots ML, Le-Lindqwister NA, Tschetter LK, Garneau SC, Flynn KA, Ebbert LP, Wender DB, Loprinzi CL. Randomized comparison of a nicotine inhaler and bupropion for smoking cessation and relapse prevention. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007;82(2):186–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Edmondson D, Horowitz CR, Goldfinger JZ, Fei K, Kronish IM. Concerns about medications mediate the association of posttraumatic stress disorder with adherence to medication in stroke survivors. Br J Health Psychol. 2013;18(4):799–813.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  166. Shemesh E, Yehuda R, Milo O, Dinur I, Rudnick A, Vered Z, Cotter G. Posttraumatic stress, nonadherence, and adverse outcome in survivors of a myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(4):521–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52(12):1048–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Hapke U, Schumann A, Rumpf HJ, John U, Konerding U, Meyer C. Association of smoking and nicotine dependence with trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a general population sample. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2005;193(12):843–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Hall KS, Hoerster KD, Yancy WS Jr. Post-traumatic stress disorder, physical activity, and eating behaviors. Epidemiol Rev. 2015;37:103–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Caples SM, Garcia-Touchard A, Somers VK. Sleep-disordered breathing and cardiovascular risk. Sleep. 2007;30(3):291–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

    C. Carmassi, A. Cordone, V. Pedrinelli & L. Dell’Osso

Authors
  1. C. Carmassi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. Cordone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. V. Pedrinelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. L. Dell’Osso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to C. Carmassi .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept of Drug Sciences, Pharmacology Sect, University of Pavia, Dept of Drug Sciences, Pharmacology Sect, Pavia, Pavia, Italy

    Stefano Govoni

  2. Dept of Brain and Behavioural Sciences, University of Pavia Dept of Brain and Behavioural Sciences, Pavia, Pavia, Italy

    Pierluigi Politi

  3. Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Department of Molecular Medicine, Pavia, Pavia, Italy

    Emilio Vanoli

Section Editor information

  1. Dipartiment of Brain and Behavioral Science, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

    Matteo Rocchetti

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Carmassi, C., Cordone, A., Pedrinelli, V., Dell’Osso, L. (2020). PTSD and Cardiovascular Disease. In: Govoni, S., Politi, P., Vanoli, E. (eds) Brain and Heart Dynamics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90305-7_20-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90305-7_20-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-90305-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-90305-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation