Abstract
Naturally available ilmenite mineral is being used as a starting material to produce titanium based products that have wide applications. Transformation of ilmenite to different titanium based materials by strong and weak acid, and base digestion, is discussed. Effects of temperature, concentration of acid/base, reaction time on dissolution of ilmenite are extensively reviewed. Characterization of the starting materials, intermediates and the products by x-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry, brunauer–emmett–teller surface area analysis, and scanning electron microscopy are presented. Further, advantages and disadvantages associated with the digestion methods are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
1 Introduction
TiO2 based materials have attracted significant interest in many fields of applications owing to their unique characteristic features. TiO2 is well known for its photocatalytic activity including water splitting and degradation of organic molecules in particular. H2 is considered to be a future clean fuel due to the depletion of fossil fuels. It is easily generated by water splitting catalyzed by TiO2 based catalysts [1,2,3]. Organic molecules such as textile dyes [4,5,6], pesticides [7, 8], pharmaceuticals [9,10,11] present as pollutants mainly in wastewater, are degraded by TiO2 based catalysts in the presence of UV and/or visible light. Further, such photocatalysis has been shown to be effective in antimicrobial activities [12,13,14]. Briefly, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 could be explained as; upon exposure to UV light a photogenerated electron excites to the conduction band from the valence band leaving a hole in the valence band. The photocatalytic activity is caused by the photogenerated electrons and holes. TiO2 is promising in photovoltaic cells [15, 16] as electrons that are generated when the photosensitizer absorbs light are handed over to the conduction band of TiO2. These diffuse towards the counter electrode through the transparent conducting oxide electrode to complete the circuit [17]. Further, TiO2 is used as the anode material in Lithium ion batteries in electric vehicles, mobile electronics etc. due to its high working voltage that ensures a stable operation [18, 19]. TiO2 is used as a white pigment in paints, coatings, plastics and inks due to its unique light scattering ability especially of the Rutile phase which has the highest refractive index. Further, pigmentary TiO2 is inert, non-toxic, thermodynamically stable and inexpensive [20]. Moreover, TiO2 has been modified by do** metals [21], non-metals [22], and coupling with metal oxides [23] and non-metal oxides [34]. This would much broaden the scope and the applicability of using ilmenite as the raw material to prepare the titanium precursors. According to our knowledge, such synthesis methods have not been reported to compare their efficiency with the doped materials synthesized by existing chemical precursors. We believe that a simple co-precipitation method could be used to synthesize doped TiO2 from natural ilmenite. For example, a solution containing iron added to TiOCl2 can be easily precipitated by using ammonia. N doped TiO2 may be easily synthesized by using urea where it will act as the N source and the base to precipitate [104]. Moreover, do** can be done right after obtaining TiO2 as it has not been crystallized yet. In such instances, desired metal salts such as FeCl3, CuCl2, AgNO3 dissolved in deionized water could be added to TiO2 before heating and calcination. Overnight stirring followed by heating and calcination would result in doped TiO2. This method could be implemented in synthesizing non-metal doped TiO2 as well. For example, urea could be added at a proper concentration to just produced TiO2 to synthesize N doped TiO2. Such research projects have not been reported so far opening new avenues to research in this area. However, heterostructures have been prepared by using natural ilmenite as the raw material and the solution resulted after digestion as the precursor. Thambiliyagodage et al. report the synthesis of binary Fe2TiO5/TiO2 nanocomposites using only the precursor generated after the digestion of ilmenite [106] and ternary Fe2O3/Fe2TiO5/TiO2 composite using the precursor and externally added iron [107], and they have shown high photocatalytic activity on degradation of methylene blue under sunlight. The rate of photodegradation of methylene blue under sunlight (0.038 min−1) in the presence of 2 g/L, Fe2O3/Fe2TiO5/TiO2 is greater than the rate of photodegradation of methylene blue (0.028 min−1) under 300 W simulated sunlight in the presence of 1 g/L of the same ternary heterostructure synthesized by Iron nitrate, tetrabutyl titanate and hexamethylenetetramine [108]. The reason cannot be directly attributed to the difference in the dosage of the catalyst as Thambiliyagodage et al. have used normal scattered sunlight, while Bhoi et al. used simulated sunlight. Nanoflower like Fe2TiO5/TiO2 was obtained by treating ilmenite in NaOH hydrothermally by Fernando et al. and have been used for electrocatalytic H2 evolution [109]. Multi-shelled TiO2/Fe2TiO5 synthesized using TiCl4 and FeCl3 have shown to be effective in water oxidation under solar light [110]. Further, magnetic properties of Fe2TiO5 synthesized by natural ilmenite via co-precipitation method [111] and via oxidation [112] have been also studied. Activities of the composites synthesized from natural ilmenite and synthetic chemicals are not compared in this review as different conditions have been used by different researchers. Research projects should be elaborated in finding the potential new applications of products prepared by using ilmenite as the raw material. Leachates obtained from the dissolution of ilmenite should be chemically treated to produce more titanium derived products. Leachates could be treated in different methods including sol gel synthesis, spray pyrolysis, electrochemical deposition, hydrothermal synthesis etc. to produce nanomaterials with different morphologies that could have different properties which can be applied to various applications. Further, obtained leachate could be combined with other chemicals such as CuCl2, ZnCl2, FeCl3 to produce heterojunctions which could be used as visible active photocatalysts to degrade organic pollutants. However, given that ilmenite is a natural material available for low cost, converting it to a titanium precursor consumes a high amount of chemicals and energy. Chemicals like acids, bases and salts were supposed to use in very high concentrations. Further, as ilmenite is a macro material dissolution is less efficient. Therefore, techniques like milling have been used to reduce the particle size and further, to change the chemical composition to facilitate digestion. However, milling requires high temperatures and the instrument which add more depth to the cost of the process. Considering the above, it is evident that there is more space for innovative research in the field discussed in this review.
5 Conclusions
Ilmenite partially dissolves in strong acids such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and weak acids including oxalic acid, phosphoric acid, citric acid to yield titanium and iron in the leachate. Generally, with increasing acid concentration, leaching time and leaching temperatures dissolution of ilmenite has increased. Addition of a reducing agent such as Fe increases the dissolution of ilmenite, and pseudobrookite phase formed during the oxidation of ilmenite resulting in a higher titanium yield. Formation of the pesudobrookite phase is prevented when Na2S, ZnO and ZnS are added in the preoxidation increasing the yield of titanium and iron from acid leaching. Leaching of ilmenite in potassium hydroxide would produce potassium titanate which may need additional acid treatment step to enhance the further dissolution. Leachates obtained from digestion of ilmenite has been used as a precursor to synthesize TiO2, while the residue obtained after the treatment were also rich with TiO2. Therefore, natural ilmenite can be used to produce TiO2 which is an effective white colour pigment and TiO2 based nanomaterials that are efficient photocatalysts for generation of energy via water splitting and degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater.
References
Miyoshi A, Nishioka S, Maeda K. Water splitting on rutile TiO2-based photocatalysts. Chem A Eur J. 2018;24(69):18204–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201800799.
Wolcott A, Smith WA, Kuykendall TR, Zhao Y, Zhang JZ. Photoelectrochemical water splitting using dense and aligned TiO 2 nanorod arrays. Small. 2009;5(1):104–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200800902.
Cowan AJ, Tang J, Leng W, Durrant JR, Klug DR. Water splitting by nanocrystalline TiO 2 in a complete photoelectrochemical cell exhibits efficiencies limited by charge recombination. J Phys Chem C. 2010;114(9):4208–14. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp909993w.
Haque MM, Muneer M. TiO2-mediated photocatalytic degradation of a textile dye derivative, bromothymol blue, in aqueous suspensions. Dye Pigment. 2007;75(2):443–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2006.06.043.
Neppolian B, Choi HC, Sakthivel S, Arabindoo B, Murugesan V. Solar light induced and TiO2 assisted degradation of textile dye reactive blue 4. Chemosphere. 2002;46(8):1173–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00284-3.
Poulios I, Aetopoulou I. Photocatalytic degradation of the textile dye reactive orange 16 in the presence of tio2 suspensions. Environ Technol (United Kingdom). 1999;20(5):479–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593332008616843.
Mengyue Z, Shifu C, Yaowu T. Photocatalytic degradation of organophosphorus pesticides using thin films of TiO2. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 1995;64(4):339–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.280640405.
Zhu X, Yuan C, Bao Y, Yang J, Wu Y. Photocatalytic degradation of pesticide pyridaben on TiO2 particles. J Mol Catal A Chem. 2005;229(1–2):95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2004.11.010.
Sarkar S, Chakraborty S, Bhattacharjee C. Photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceutical wastes by alginate supported TiO2 nanoparticles in packed bed photo reactor (PBPR). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2015;121:263–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.02.035.
He Y, Sutton NB, Rijnaarts HHH, Langenhoff AAM. Degradation of pharmaceuticals in wastewater using immobilized TiO2 photocatalysis under simulated solar irradiation. Appl Catal B Environ. 2016;182:132–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.09.015.
Yang H, Li G, An T, Gao Y, Fu J. Photocatalytic degradation kinetics and mechanism of environmental pharmaceuticals in aqueous suspension of TiO2: A case of sulfa drugs. Catal Today. 2010;153(3–4):200–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2010.02.068.
Kubacka A, et al. Boosting TiO2-anatase antimicrobial activity: Polymer-oxide thin films. Appl Catal B Environ. 2009;89(3–4):441–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.01.002.
Kubacka A, et al. Understanding the antimicrobial mechanism of TiO 2 -based nanocomposite films in a pathogenic bacterium. Sci Rep. 2014;4(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04134.
Mohamed HH, Hammami I, Baghdadi HA, Al-Jameel SS. Multifunctional tio2 microspheres-rgo as highly active visible light photocatalyst and antimicrobial agent. Mater Express. 2018;8(4):345–52. https://doi.org/10.1166/mex.2018.1437.
Ko KH, Lee YC, Jung YJ. Enhanced efficiency of dye-sensitized TiO2 solar cells (DSSC) by do** of metal ions. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2005;283(2):482–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2004.09.009.
Bhogaita M, Yadav S, Bhanushali AU, Parsola AA, Pratibha Nalini R. Synthesis and characterization of TiO2 thin films for DSSC prototype. Materials Today. 2016;3(6):2052–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2016.04.108.
Ali I, Suhail M, Alothman ZA, Alwarthan A. “Recent advances in syntheses, properties and applications of TiO2 nanostructures”, RSC Advances, 8: 53. R Soc Chem. 2018;30125–30147:24. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra06517a.
Song T, Paik U. “TiO2 as an active or supplemental material for lithium batteries. J Mater Chem A. 2015;14–31:15. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ta06888f.
El-Deen SS, et al. Anatase TiO2 nanoparticles for lithium-ion batteries. Ionics (Kiel). 2018;24(10):2925–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-017-2425-y.
Braun JH, Baidins A, Marganski RE. TiO2 pigment technology: a review. Prog Org Coatings. 1992;20(2):105–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-0655(92)80001-D.
Umebayashi T, Yamaki T, Itoh H, Asai K. Analysis of electronic structures of 3d transition metal-doped TiO2 based on band calculations. J Phys Chem Solids. 2002;63(10):1909–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3697(02)00177-4.
Basavarajappa PS, Patil SB, Ganganagappa N, Reddy KR, Raghu AV, Reddy CV. Recent progress in metal-doped TiO2, non-metal doped/codoped TiO2 and TiO2 nanostructured hybrids for enhanced photocatalysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2020;45(13):7764–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.07.241.
Vinodgopal K, Kamat PV. Enhanced rates of photocatalytic degradation of an azo dye using SnO2/TiO2 coupled semiconductor thin films. Environ Sci Technol. 1995;29(3):841–5. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00003a037.
**ang C, Li M, Zhi M, Manivannan A, Wu N. Reduced graphene oxide/titanium dioxide composites for supercapacitor electrodes: Shape and coupling effects. J Mater Chem. 2012;22(36):19161–7. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2jm33177b.
Shao F, Sun J, Gao L, Chen J, Yang S. Electrophoretic deposition of TiO2 nanorods for low-temperature dye-sensitized solar cells. RSC Adv. 2014;4(15):7805–10. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3RA47286H.
Dundar I, Krichevskaya M, Katerski A, Acik IO. TiO2 thin films by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis as photocatalytic material for air purification. R Soc Open Sci. 2019;6:2. https://doi.org/10.1098/RSOS.181578.
Arami H, Mazloumi M, Khalifehzadeh R, Sadrnezhaad SK. Sonochemical preparation of TiO2 nanoparticles. Mater Lett. 2007;61(23–24):4559–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATLET.2007.02.051.
Falk GS, Borlaf M, López-Muñoz MJ, Fariñas JC, Rodrigues-Neto JB, Moreno R. Microwave-assisted synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles: photocatalytic activity of powders and thin films. J Nanoparticle Res. 2018;202(20):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11051-018-4140-7.
Kang OL, Ahmad A, Rana UA, Hassan NH. Sol-gel titanium dioxide nanoparticles: preparation and structural characterization. J Nanotechnol. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5375939.
Nkele AC, et al. A study on titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from titanium isopropoxide under SILAR-induced gel method: Transition from anatase to rutile structure. Inorg Chem Commun. 2020;112:107705. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.INOCHE.2019.107705.
Darvishi M, Seyed-Yazdi J. Characterization and comparison of photocatalytic activities of prepared TiO2/graphene nanocomposites using titanium butoxide and TiO2 via microwave irradiation method. Mater Res Express. 2016;3(8):085601. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/3/8/085601.
Shi W, Park AH, Xu S, Yoo PJ, Kwon YU. Continuous and conformal thin TiO2-coating on carbon support makes Pd nanoparticles highly efficient and durable electrocatalyst. Appl Catal B Environ. 2021;284: 119715. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2020.119715.
Watanabe N, Kaneko T, Uchimaru Y, Yanagida S, Yasumori A, Sugahara Y. Preparation of water-dispersible TiO2 nanoparticles from titanium tetrachloride using urea hydrogen peroxide as an oxygen donor. CrystEngComm. 2013;15(48):10533–40. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CE41561A.
Thambiliyagodage C. Activity enhanced TiO2 nanomaterials for photodegradation of dyes - A review. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag. 2021;16:100592. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENMM.2021.100592.
Kothari NC. Recent developments in processing ilmenite for titanium. Int J Miner Process. 1974;1(4):287–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-7516(74)90001-5.
Nguyen TH, Lee MS. A review on the recovery of titanium dioxide from ilmenite ores by direct leaching technologies. Mineral Process Extract Metal Rev. 2019;40(4):231–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2018.1502668.
Haverkamp RG, Kruger D, Rajashekar R. The digestion of New Zealand ilmenite by hydrochloric acid. Hydrometallurgy. 2016;163:198–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2016.04.015.
Zhang W, Zhu Z, Cheng CY. A literature review of titanium metallurgical processes. Hydrometallurgy. 2011;108(3–4):177–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2011.04.005.
Schulz KJ, DeYoung JH, Seal RR, Bradley DC. Critical mineral resources of the United States: economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply. Geol Surv, 2018.
“• Titanium production worldwide by country 2020 | Statista.” https://www.statista.com/statistics/759972/mine-production-titanium-minerals-worldwide-by-country/. Accessed 28, 2021.
Mahmoud MHH, Afifi AAI, Ibrahim IA. Reductive leaching of ilmenite ore in hydrochloric acid for preparation of synthetic rutile. Hydrometallurgy. 2004;73(1–2):99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2003.08.001.
Shahien MG, Khedr MMH, Maurice AE, Farghali AA, Ali RAM. Synthesis of high purity rutile nanoparticles from medium-grade Egyptian natural ilmenite. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci. 2015;4(3):207–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjbas.2015.05.013.
Ramadan AM, Farghaly M, Fathy WM, Ahmed MM. Leaching and kinetics studies on processing of Abu-Ghalaga ilmenite ore. 2016.
Wahyuningsih S, Rinawati L, Munifa RMI, Ramelan AH, Sulistyono E. TiO2Nanorods preparation from titanyl sulphate produced by dissolution of ilmenite. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2017;176:012042. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/176/1/012042.
Lalasari LH, Yuwono AH, Firdiyono F, Rochman NT, Harjanto S, Suharno B. Controlling the nanostructural characteristics of TiO2 nanoparticles derived from ilmenite mineral of Bangka island through sulfuric acid route. Appl Mech Mater. 2013;391:34–40. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.391.34.
S. Mohammad Ali, “Production of Nanosized Synthetic Rutile from Ilmenite Concentrate by Sonochemical HCl and H 2 SO 4 Leaching,” Iranian Institute of Research and Development in Chemical Industries (IRDCI)-ACECR, 2014. Accessed: 30, 2020. http://www.ijcce.ac.ir/article_10749.html.
Palliyaguru L, Arachchi NDH, Jayaweera CD, Jayaweera PM. Production of synthetic rutile from ilmenite via anion-exchange. Miner Process Extr Metall Trans Inst Min Metall. 2018;127(3):169–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/03719553.2017.1331621.
Arachchi NDH, Peiris GS, Shimomura M, Jayaweera PM. Decomposition of ilmenite by ZnO/ZnS: enhanced leaching in acid solutions. Hydrometallurgy. 2016;166:73–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2016.09.001.
Welham NJ. A parametric study of the mechanically activated carbothermic reduction of ilmenite. Miner Eng. 1996;9(12):1189–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-6875(96)00115-X.
Chen Y. Different oxidation reactions of ilmenite induced by high energy ball milling. J Alloys Compd. 1998;266(1–2):150–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8388(97)00494-5.
Tao T, Chen Y. Direct synthesis of rutile TiO2 nanorods with improved electrochemical lithium ion storage properties. Mater Lett. 2013;98:112–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2013.01.132.
Li C, Liang B, Chen SP. Combined milling-dissolution of Panzhihua ilmenite in sulfuric acid. Hydrometallurgy. 2006;82(1–2):93–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.04.001.
Song B, Zhang B, ** F, Lv X, Carbothermic reduction of ilmenite concentrate with coke assisted by high energy ball milling. In: TMS Annual Meeting, 2014, 563–571, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48234-7_56.
Wu F, et al. Hydrogen peroxide leaching of hydrolyzed titania residue prepared from mechanically activated Panzhihua ilmenite leached by hydrochloric acid. Int J Miner Process. 2011;98(1–2):106–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2010.10.013.
Sasikumar C, Rao DS, Srikanth S, Mukhopadhyay NK, Mehrotra SP. Dissolution studies of mechanically activated Manavalakurichi ilmenite with HCl and H2SO4. Hydrometallurgy. 2007;88(1–4):154–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.03.013.
Sasikumar C, Rao DS, Srikanth S, Ravikumar B, Mukhopadhyay NK, Mehrotra SP. Effect of mechanical activation on the kinetics of sulfuric acid leaching of beach sand ilmenite from Orissa, india. Hydrometallurgy. 2004;75(1–4):189–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2004.08.001.
Jayaweera PM, Jayaweera PVV, Jayasundara UL, Jayaweera CD, Peiris GS, Premalal EVA. Photo induced reductive leaching of iron from ilmenite in hydrochloric acid solutions. Trans Institutions Min Metall Sect C Miner Process Extr Metall. 2011;120(3):191–6. https://doi.org/10.1179/1743285511Y.0000000018.
Han KN, Rubcumintara T, Fuerstenau MC. Leaching behavior of ilmenite with sulfuric acid. Metall Trans B. 1987;18(2):325–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02656150.
**ong X, Wang Z, Wu F, Li X, Guo H. Preparation of TiO2 from ilmenite using sulfuric acid decomposition of the titania residue combined with separation of Fe3+ with EDTA during hydrolysis. Adv Powder Technol. 2013;24(1):60–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2012.02.002.
Li Z, Wang Z, Li G. Preparation of nano-titanium dioxide from ilmenite using sulfuric acid-decomposition by liquid phase method. Powder Technol. 2016;287:256–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2015.09.008.
Latifa H, Yuwono AH, Firdiyono F, Rochman NT, Harjanto S, Suharno B. Controlling the Nanostructural Characteristics of TiO2 Nanoparticles Derived from Ilmenite Mineral of Bangka Island through Sulfuric Acid Route. Appl Mech Mater. 2013;391:34–40. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.391.34.
Jia L, et al. Beneficiation of titania by sulfuric acid pressure leaching of Panzhihua ilmenite. Hydrometallurgy. 2014;150:92–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.09.016.
Torres-Luna JA, Sanabria NR, Carriazo JG. Powders of iron(III)-doped titanium dioxide obtained by direct way from a natural ilmenite. Powder Technol. 2016;302:254–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2016.08.056.
Wahyuningsih S, et al. The Effects of Leaching Process to the TiO2Synthesis from Bangka Ilmenite. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2018;333: 012049. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/333/1/012049.
Wahyuningsih S, Ramelan AH, Munifa RMI, Saputri LNMZ, Chasanah U. Synthesis of TiO2nanorods from titania and titanyl sulfate produced from ilmenite dissolution by hydrothermal method. J Phys Conf Ser. 2016;776: 012044. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/776/1/012044.
Wahyuningsih S, et al. Decomposition of ilmenite in hydrochloric acid to obtain high grade titanium dioxide. Asian J Chem. 2013;25(12):6791–4. https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2013.14692.
Gupta SK, Rajakumar V, Grieveson P. Phase transformations during heating of llmenite concentrates. Metall Trans B. 1991;22(5):711–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02679027.
Vásquez R, Molinaaa A, Leachinggoffilmeniteeanddpre-oxidizeddilmeniteeinn hydrochloriccaciddtooobtainnhighhgradeetitaniumm dioxidee, 2008.
Claassen JO, Meyer EHO, Rennie J, Sandenbergh RF. Iron precipitation from zinc-rich solutions: Defining the Zincor Process. Hydrometallurgy. 2002;67(1–3):87–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-386X(02)00141-X.
Jha MK, Kumar V, Singh RJ. Review of hydrometallurgical recovery of zinc from industrial wastes. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2001;33(1):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-3449(00)00095-1.
Baba AA, Adekola FA. Beneficiation of a Nigerian sphalerite mineral: Solvent extraction of zinc by Cyanex®272 in hydrochloric acid. Hydrometallurgy. 2011;109(3–4):187–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2011.06.004.
Palliyaguru L, Kulathunga MSU, Kumarasinghe KGRU, Jayaweera CD, Jayaweera PM. Facile synthesis of titanium phosphates from ilmenite mineral sand: Potential white pigments for cosmetic applications. J Cosmet Sci. 2019;70(3):149–59.
Senzui M, Tamura T, Miura K, Ikarashi Y, Watanabe Y, Fujii M. Study on penetration of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles into intact and damaged skin in vitro. J Toxicol Sci. 2010;35(1):107–13. https://doi.org/10.2131/jts.35.107.
Purnamawati S, Indrastuti N, Danarti R, Saefudin T. “The role of moisturizers in addressing various kinds of dermatitis: A review”, Clinical Medicine and Research, 15: 3–4. Marshfield Clinic. 2017;75–87:01. https://doi.org/10.3121/cmr.2017.1363.
Palliyaguru L, Kulathunga US, Jayarathna LI, Jayaweera CD, Jayaweera PM. A simple and novel synthetic route to prepare anatase TiO2 nanopowders from natural ilmenite via the H3PO4/NH3 process. Int J Miner Metall Mater. 2020;27(6):846–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-020-2030-3.
Jonglertjunya W, Rubcumintara T. Titanium and iron dissolutions from ilmenite by acid leaching and microbiological oxidation techniques. Asia-Pacific J Chem Eng. 2013;8(3):323–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/apj.1663.
Nayl AA, Aly HF. Acid leaching of ilmenite decomposed by KOH. Hydrometallurgy. 2009;97(1–2):86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2009.01.011.
Liu Y, Qi T, Chu J, Tong Q, Zhang Y. Decomposition of ilmenite by concentrated KOH solution under atmospheric pressure. Int J Miner Process. 2006;81(2):79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2006.07.003.
Liu YM, Lü H, Qi T, Zhang Y. Extraction behaviours of titanium and other impurities in the decomposition process of ilmenite by highly concentrated KOH solution. Int J Miner Metall Mater. 2012;19(1):9–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-012-0508-3.
Kordzadeh-Kermani V, Schaffie M, Hashemipour Rafsanjani H, Ranjbar M. A modified process for leaching of ilmenite and production of TiO2 nanoparticles. Hydrometallurgy. 2020;198:105507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2020.105507.
Epstein E. Mineral nutrition of plants: principles and perspectives. 1972.
Farrow JB, Ritchie IM, Mangano P. The reaction between reduced ilmenite and oxygen in ammonium chloride solutions. Hydrometallurgy. 1987;18(1):21–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-386X(87)90014-4.
Zhao Q, Li M, Zhou L, Zheng M, Zhang T. Removal of Metallic Iron from Reduced Ilmenite by Aeration Leaching. Met. 2020;10(8):1020. https://doi.org/10.3390/MET10081020.
Ward J, Bailey S, Avraamides J. The use of ethylenediammonium chloride as an aeration catalyst in the removal of metallic iron from reduced ilmenite. Hydrometallurgy. 1999;53(3):215–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-386X(99)00046-8.
Tao T, et al. Ilmenite FeTiO3 nanoflowers and their pseudocapacitance. J Phys Chem C. 2011;115(35):17297–302. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp203345s.
Tao T, et al. Porous TiO2 with a controllable bimodal pore size distribution from natural ilmenite. CrystEngComm. 2011;13(5):1322–7. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0ce00533a.
Tao T, He L, Li J, Zhang Y. Large scale synthesis of TiO2-carbon nanocomposites using cheap raw materials as anode for lithium ion batteries. J Alloys Compd. 2014;615:1052–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2014.07.167.
Nayl AA, Awwad NS, Aly HF. Kinetics of acid leaching of ilmenite decomposed by KOH. Part 2. Leaching by H2SO4 and C2H2O4. J Hazard Mater. 2009;168(2–3):793–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.02.076.
Welham NJ, Llewellyn DJ. Mechanical enhancement of the dissolution of ilmenite. Miner Eng. 1998;11(9):827–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-6875(98)00070-3.
Middlemas S, Fang ZZ, Fan P. A new method for production of titanium dioxide pigment. Hydrometallurgy. 2013;131–132:107–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2012.11.002.
Zhang L, Hu H, Liao Z, Chen Q, Tan J. Hydrochloric acid leaching behavior of different treated Panxi ilmenite concentrations. Hydrometallurgy. 2011;107(1–2):40–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2011.01.006.
Zhang L, Hu H, Wei L, Chen Q, Tan J. Hydrochloric acid leaching behaviour of mechanically activated Panxi ilmenite (FeTiO3). Purif Technol. 2010;73(2):173–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2010.03.022.
Wu F, et al. Preparation of high-value TiO2 nanowires by leaching of hydrolyzed titania residue from natural ilmenite. Hydrometallurgy. 2013;140:82–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2013.09.003.
Tsuchida H, Narita E, Takeuchi H, Adachi M, Okabe T. Manufacture of High Pure Titanium(IV) Oxide by the Chloride Process. I. Kinetic Study on Leaching of Ilmenite Ore in Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid Solution. Bull Chem Soc Jpn. 1982;55(6):1934–8. https://doi.org/10.1246/bcsj.55.1934.
Zhang S, Nicol MJ. An electrochemical study of the reduction and dissolution of ilmenite in sulfuric acid solutions. Hydrometallurgy. 2009;97(3):146–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2009.02.009.
Zhang L, Li G, Zhang W. Synthesis of rutile from high titania slag by pyrometallurgical route. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China. 2011;21(10):2317–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(11)61014-5.
Thambiliyagodage C, Mirihana S. Photocatalytic activity of Fe and Cu co-doped TiO2 nanoparticles under visible light. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol. 2021;99(1):109–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10971-021-05556-4.
Yang XJ, Wang S, Sun HM, Wang XB, Lian JS. Preparation and photocatalytic performance of Cu-doped TiO2 nanoparticles. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China. 2015;25(2):504–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(15)63631-7.
Hajjaji A, et al. Photocatalytic activity of Cr-doped TiO2 nanoparticles deposited on porous multicrystalline silicon films. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2014;9(1):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-9-543.
Deng QR, **a XH, Guo ML, Gao Y, Shao G. Mn-doped TiO2 nanopowders with remarkable visible light photocatalytic activity. Mater Lett. 2011;65(13):2051–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2011.04.010.
Ananpattarachai J, Kajitvichyanukul P, Seraphin S. Visible light absorption ability and photocatalytic oxidation activity of various interstitial N-doped TiO2 prepared from different nitrogen dopants. J Hazard Mater. 2009;168(1):253–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.02.036.
Matos J, et al. C-doped anatase TiO 2: Adsorption kinetics and photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue and phenol, and correlations with DFT estimations. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2019;547:14–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2019.03.074.
Zhu M, et al. New method to synthesize S-doped TiO2 with stable and highly efficient photocatalytic performance under indoor sunlight irradiation. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2015;3(12):3123–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b01137.
Thambiliyagodage C, Usgodaarachchi L. Photocatalytic activity of N, Fe and Cu co-doped TiO2 nanoparticles under sunlight. Curr Res Green Sustain Chem. 2021;4: 100186. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRGSC.2021.100186.
Reda SM, Khairy M, Mousa MA. Photocatalytic activity of nitrogen and copper doped TiO2 nanoparticles prepared by microwave-assisted sol-gel process. Arab J Chem. 2020;13(1):86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ARABJC.2017.02.002.
Thambiliyagodage C, Mirihana S, Wijesekera R, Madusanka DS, Kandanapitiye M, Bakker M. Fabrication of Fe2TiO5/TiO2 binary nanocomposite from natural ilmenite and their photocatalytic activity under solar energy. Curr Res Green Sustain Chem. 2021;4: 100156. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRGSC.2021.100156.
Charitha T, Leshan U, Shanitha M, Ramanee W, Buddi L, Martin B. Efficient photodegradation activity of α-Fe2O3/Fe2TiO5/TiO2 and Fe2TiO5/TiO2 nanocomposites synthesized from natural ilmenite. Results Mater. 2021;12: 100219. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RINMA.2021.100219.
Bhoi YP, et al. Single step combustion synthesis of novel Fe2TiO5/α-Fe2O3/TiO2 ternary photocatalyst with combined double type-II cascade charge migration processes and efficient photocatalytic activity. Appl Surf Sci. 2020;525: 146571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.146571.
Fernando N, et al. Pseudobrookite based heterostructures for efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Mater Reports Energy. 2021;1(2):100020. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATRE.2021.100020.
Waqas M, et al. Multi-shelled TiO2/Fe2TiO5 heterostructured hollow microspheres for enhanced solar water oxidation. Nano Res. 2017;10(11):3920–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12274-017-1606-3.
Mahmoud M, Hessien M, Alhadhrami A, Gobouri AA. Physicochemical properties of pseudobrookite Fe2TiO5 synthesized from ilmenite ore by co-precipitation route. Physicochem Probl Miner Process. 2019;55(1):290–300. https://doi.org/10.5277/PPMP18131.
Chen X, Deng J, Yu R, Chen J, Hu P, **ng X. A simple oxidation route to prepare pseudobrookite from panzhihua raw ilmenite. J Am Ceram Soc. 2010;93(10):2968–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1551-2916.2010.03937.X.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Accelerating Higher Education Expansion and Development (AHEAD) Operation of the Ministry of Higher Education funded by the World Bank.
Funding
This research was supported by the Accelerating Higher Education Expansion and Development (AHEAD) Operation of the Ministry of Higher Education funded by the World Bank.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
CT conceived the idea, designed the project, gathered data from all the sources, acquired funds, wrote the first draft of the manuscript and edited the manuscript with RW and MB. RW and MB contributed immensely on editing the manuscript. RW and MB contributed to acquire funds. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors report no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Thambiliyagodage, C., Wijesekera, R. & Bakker, M.G. Leaching of ilmenite to produce titanium based materials: a review. Discov Mater 1, 20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43939-021-00020-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43939-021-00020-0