SpringerLink
Log in

Drivers of change in sustainable water management and agricultural development in South Africa: a participatory approach

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sustainable Water Resources Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

To develop a sustainable and vibrant agricultural sector capable of meeting the food demands of the growing population, freshwater in agriculture must be used efficiently and effectively to ensure sustainable socio-economic development of the economy. Issues such as climate change, land degradation, water pollution and population growth among others will continue to influence sustainable water management and agricultural development in South Africa. The challenge facing South Africa is how to ensure water and food security in the face of recurring droughts, increasing urbanisation and decreasing freshwater resources. South Africa will need to understand the drivers influencing water management and agricultural development to develop improved methods for planning sustainable water management and agricultural development. This study made use of a participatory approach, which provided a valuable platform for the identification of drivers of change, their characteristics and relative importance regarding agricultural water resource management and agricultural development in South Africa through participation. The study identified and analysed 5 clusters and 37 drivers, and their relative importance in influencing water management agricultural development in South Africa. The study found that population growth; education, climate extremes, irrigation technology, land degradation, rainwater harvesting, government support, and land reform, mismanagement of public resources and net agricultural export were among the most influential drivers in agricultural water management. The implication of these results for sustainable agricultural water management is discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study can be obtained from the authors upon request.

Notes

  1. The index rating scale (1 = Less significance; 2 = average significance; 3 = moderate significance; 4 = high significance & 5 = very high significance).

References

  • Alexander C (2019) Cape Town’s ‘Day Zero’ Water Crisis, One Year Later. https://www.citylab.com/environment/2019/04/cape-town-water-conservation-south-africa-drought/587011/

  • Bahta YT, Jordaan A, Muyambo F (2016) Communal farmers’ perception of drought in South Africa: policy implication for drought risk reduction. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 20:39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.10.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas AK (2008) Integrated water resources management: is it working? Water Resour Dev 24(1):5–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Brachet C, Magnier J, Valensuela D, Petit K, Fribourg-Blanc B, Bernex N, Scoullos M, Tarlock D (2015) The handbook for management and restoration of aquatic ecosystems. International Network of Basin Organizations, Paris, France

    Google Scholar 

  • Brears RC (2018) Climate resilient water resources management. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassman KG, Dobermann A, Walters DT, Yang H (2003) Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality. Ann Rev Environ Resour 28(1):315–358. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.040202.122858

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claassen M, Funke N, Nienaber S (2013) Scenarios for the South African water sector in 2025. Water SA 39(1):143–150. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v39i1.14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullis JDS, Rossouw N, du Toit G, Petrie D, Wolfaardt G, de Clercq W, Horn A (2018) Economic risks due to declining water quality in the Breede River catchment. Water SA 44(3):464–473. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v44i3.14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denby K, Movik S, Mehta L, van Koppen B (2016) The ‘trickle down’ of IWRM: a case study of local-level realities in the Inkomati Water Management Area. South Africa. Water Altern 9(3):473–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Water Affairs (DWA) (2013) National Water Resource Strategy: water for an equitable and sustainable future. National Water Resource Strategy, NWRS2, 201

  • Drescher M, Perera A, Johnson C, Buse L, Drew C, Burgman M (2013) Toward rigorous use of expert knowledge in ecological research. Ecosphere 4(7):83

    Google Scholar 

  • du Plessis A (2017) South Africa’s water availability and use. In: Freshwater challenges of South Africa and its Upper Vaal River. Springer, Cham, pp 65–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer A, Zoppou C, Nielsen O, Roberts S (2004). Quantifying social vulnerability: a methodology for identifying those at risk to natural hazards. Geoscience, Department of Industry, Tourism, and Resources. Canberra, Australia.

  • Fan S, Jitsuchon S, Methakunnavut N (2004) The importance of public investment for reducing poverty in middle-income countries: the case in Thailand. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo P, Perkins PE (2013) Women and water management in times of climate change: participatory and inclusive processes. J Clean Prod 60:188–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Flora CB, Flora JL, Fey S (2004) Rural communities: legacy and change, 2nd edn. Westview Press, Boulder

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallopin GC, Rijsberman F (2000) Three global water scenarios. Int J Water. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijw.2000.002055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Global Water Partnership (2000) Integrated Water Resources Management. TAC Background Papers No. 4, (Stockholm: GWP Secretariat), p 22

  • Gokool S, Jewitt G (2019) Identifying hotspots for investment in ecological infrastructure within the uMngeni catchment, South Africa. Phys Chem Earth Parts A/B/C 114:102807

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazell P, Wood S (2008) Drivers of change in global agriculture. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 363(1491):495–515. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt R, Van Delden H, Escobar F (2014) Participatory land-use modelling, pathways to an integrated approach. Environ Model Softw 52:149–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2013.10.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huber R, Bakker M, Balmann A, Berger T, Bithell M, Brown C, Mack G (2018) Representation of decision-making in European agricultural agent-based models. Agric Syst 167:143–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurtado-Jaramillo CH, Chiu MC, Arimany-Serrat N, Ferràs X, Meijide D (2018) Identifying sustainability-value creation drivers for a company in the Water Industry Sector: an Empirical Study. Water Resour Manag 32(12):3961–3978

    Google Scholar 

  • Ighodaro ID, Lategan FS, Yusuf SFG (2013) The impact of soil erosion on agricultural potential and performance of Sheshegu community farmers in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. J Agric Sci 5(5):140–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Inam A, Adamowski J, Halbe J, Prasher S (2015) Using causal loop diagrams for the initialization of stakeholder engagement in soil salinity management in agricultural watersheds in develo** countries: a case study in the Rechna Doab watershed, Pakistan. J Environ Manage 152:251–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.052

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (2011) The Impact of global change on water resources: the response of UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000192216. Accessed April 8, 2020.

  • International Futures (2019) Population Forecast for South Africa. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZA. Accessed 6 Aug 2019

  • Jordaan A, Sakulski D, Muyambo F, Shwababa S, Mdungela N, Phatudi-Mphahlele B, Mashimbye C, Mlambo D et al (2017) Vulnerability, adaptation to and co** with drought: the case of commercial and subsistence rain-fed farming in the Eastern Cape, vol 2. Water Research Commission Report number: TT 716/1/17. ISBN 978-1-4312-0884-5

  • Kaufmann D, Kraay A, Mastruzzi M (2007) Governance Matters VII: aggregate and individual governance indicators 1996–2007. World Bank, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight J (2019) Water resources in South Africa. In: The geography of South Africa. Springer, Cham, pp 91–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Knüppe K, Meissner R (2016) Drivers and barriers towards sustainable water and land management in the Olifants-Doorn Water ManagScaement Area, South Africa. Environ Dev 20:3–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohler M (2016) Confronting South Africa’s water challenge: a decomposition analysis of water intensity. S Afr J Econ Manag Sci 19(5):831–847. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v19i5.1590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotir JH, Brown G, Marshall N, Johnstone R (2017a) Drivers of change and sustainability in linked social-ecological systems: an analysis in the Volta River Basin of Ghana, West Africa. Soc Nat Resour 30(10):1229–1245. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2017.1290182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotir JH, Brown G, Marshall N, Johnstone R (2017b) Systemic feedback modelling for sustainable water resources management and agricultural development: An application of participatory modelling approach in the Volta River Basin. Environ Model Softw 88:106–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.11.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhnert PM, Martin TG, Griffiths SP (2010) A guide to eliciting and using expert knowledge in Bayesian ecological models. Ecol Lett 13(7):900–914

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurian M, Ardakanian R (2015) Governing the Nexus Water, Soil and Waste Resources Considering Global Change. Springer International Publishing, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu Z (2008) Foreign direct investment and technology spill overs: theory and evidence. J Dev Econ 85(1–2):176–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Makurira H, Mazvimavi D, Kapangaziwiri E, Onema JMK, Gumindoga W (2018) Preface: understanding spatio-temporal variability of water resources and the implications for IWRM in semi-arid eastern and southern Africa. Proc Int Assoc Hydrol Sci 378:1

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathevet R, Antona M, Barnaud C, Fourage C, Trébuil G, Aubert S (2014) Contexts and dependencies in the ComMod processes. Companion modelling. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 103–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Meissner R (2016) Paradigms and theories in water governance: the case of South Africa’s national water resource strategy, second edition. Water SA 42(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v42i1.01

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer MA, Booker JM (2001) Eliciting and analysing expert judgment: a practical guide. ASA-SIAM Series on Statistics and Applied Probability, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Molobela IP, Sinha P (2011) Management of water resources in South Africa: a review. Afr J Environ Sci Technol 5(12):993–1002

    Google Scholar 

  • Monney I, Ocloo K (2017) Towards sustainable utilisation of water resources: a comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s National Water Policy. Water Policy. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2017.114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Movik S, Mehta L, van Koppen B, Denby K (2016) Emergence, interpretations and translations of IWRM in South Africa. Water Altern 9(3):456–472

    Google Scholar 

  • Mugagga F, Nabaasa BB (2016) The centrality of water resources to the realization of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). A review of potentials and constraints on the African continent. Int Soil Water Conserv Res 4(3):215–223

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukheibir P, Sparks D (2003) Water resource management and climate change in South Africa: visions, driving factors, and sustainable development indicators. Report for Phase I of the Sustainable Development, (April), 1–16. Retrieved from http://idprc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Water_resource_management-in-Southern-Africa.pdf. Accessed 10 Aug 2019

  • Nguyen TT, Ngo HH, Guo W, Wang XC, Ren N, Li G, Ding J, Liang H (2019) Implementation of a specific urban water management - Sponge City. Sci Total Environ 652:147–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Nkhonjera GK (2017) Understanding the impact of climate change on the dwindling water resources of South Africa, focusing mainly on the Olifants River basin: a review. Environ Sci Policy 71:19–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Oki T, Kim H (2016) Macroscale Hydrological Modelling and Global Water Balance. In: Tang Q, Oki T (eds) Terrestrial water cycle and climate change: natural and human-induced impacts. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp 3–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Peden D, Tadesse G, Misra AK, Ahmed FA, Astatke A, Ayalneh W, Herrero M, Kiwuwa G et al (2013) Water and livestock for human development. In: Molden D (ed) Water for food, water for life: a comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture (2007), pp 485–514

  • Perera AH, Drew CA, Johnson CJ (eds) (2012) Expert knowledge and its application in landscape ecology. Springer Science Business Science Business Media LLC, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Praskievicz S, Chang H (2009) A review of hydrological modelling of basin-scale climate change and urban development impacts. Prog Phys Geogr 33(5):650–671. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133309348098

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prokopy LS, Floress K, Klotthor-Weinkauf D, Baumgart-Getz A (2008) Determinants of agricultural best management practice adoption: evidence from the literature. J Soil Water Conserv 63(5):300–3114

    Google Scholar 

  • Pulhin JM, Ibabao RA, Rola AC, Cruz RVO (2018) Water supply and demand and the drivers of change. In: Rola A, Pulhin J, Arcala Hall R (eds) Water policy in the Philippines. Global Issues in Water Policy, vol 8. Springer, Cham, pp 15–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricaurte LF, Olaya-Rodríguez MH, Cepeda-Valencia J, Lara D, Arroyave-Suárez J, Finlayson CM, Palomo I (2017) Future impacts of drivers of change on wetland ecosystem services in Colombia. Glob Environ Change 44:158–169

    Google Scholar 

  • SANBI (South African Biodiversity Institute) (2007) NSBA river ecosystem status. https://bgis.sanbi.org/nsba/riverStatus.asp. Accessed 26 Jan 2020

  • Seeliger L, de Clercq WP, Hoffmann W, Cullis JDS, Horn AM, de Witt M (2018) Applying the water-energy-food nexus to farm profitability in the Middle Breede Catchment. South Africa. S Afr J Sci 114(11–12):1–10. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2018/5062

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) (2019) Quarterly economic indicators. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=12200. Accessed 10 July 2019.

  • Steyn M, Meissner R, Nortje K, Funke N, Petersen C (2019) Water security and South Africa. In: Meissner R, Funke N, Nortje K, Steyn M (eds) Understanding water security at local government level in South Africa. Palgrave Pivot, Cham, pp 1–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Strydom S, Jewitt GPW, Savage MJ, Clulow AD (2020) Long-term trends and variability in the microclimates of the uMngeni Catchment, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and potential impacts on water resources. Theoret Appl Climatol 140:1171–1184

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun S, Wang Y, Liu J, Cai H, Wu P, Geng Q, Xu L (2016) Sustainability assessment of regional water resources under the DPSIR framework. J Hydrol 532:140–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Td-net (2016) Td-net’s toolbox for co-producing knowledge: Venn diagram. A network of Transdisciplinary Research. https://www.naturalsciences.ch/topics. Accessed 8 Dec 2019

  • Tilman D, Cassman KG, Matson PA, Naylor R, Polasky S (2002) Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418(6898):671–677

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner SP (2016) Internal and external influences on water resource decision making. Soc Nat Resour 29(2):203–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2015.1058996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNCHS (United Nations for Human Settlement (habitat) Programme) (1995) Monitoring human settlements, abridged survey. Indicators Programme. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, Nairobi

  • Veldkamp TI, Wada Y, de Moel H, Kummu M, Eisner S, Aerts JC, Ward PJ (2015) Changing mechanism of global water scarcity events: impacts of socioeconomic changes and inter-annual hydro-climatic variability. Glob Environ Change 32:18–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Voinov A, Gaddi EB (2017) Values in Participatory Modeling: Theory and Practice. In: Gray S, Paolisso M, Jordan R, Gray S (eds) Environmental Modelling with Stakeholders. Springer, Geneva, pp 47–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Voinov A, Jenni K, Gray S, Kolagani N, Glynn PD, Bommel P, Jordan R (2018) Tools and methods in participatory modelling: selecting the right tool for the job. Environ Model Softw 109:232–255

    Google Scholar 

  • WEF (2015) Global risk 2015. World Economic Forum (WEF). Swiss, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WRC (Water Research Commission) (2015) South Africa's water research, development, and innovation (RDI) Roadmap: 2015–2025. Pretoria, South Africa

  • WWAP (UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme) (2019) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2019: Leaving No One Behind. UNESCO, Paris

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study is based on a project, ‘Agricultural water management scenarios for South Africa (K5/2711//4)’, which was initiated, managed and funded by the Water Research Commission (WRC) South Africa. Sincere appreciation goes to the Water Research Commission and National Research Foundation (NRF) for financial and other contributions, and other project team members. We want to thank all the stakeholders that participated in this study.

Funding

This research received funding from the Water Research Commission (WRC) and National Research Foundation (NRF) South Africa.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Disaster Management Training and Education Centre (DiMTEC) for Africa, University of the Free State, Internal Box 66, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa

    Y. S. Nyam & A. J. Jordaan

  2. CSIRO Agriculture and Food, 203 Tor Street, P.O. Box 102, Toowoomba, QLD, 4350, Australia

    J. H. Kotir

  3. Department of Agricultural Economics, The University of the Free State, Internal Box 58, P.O Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa

    A. A. Ogundeji

  4. Center for Environmental Management, The University of the Free State, Internal Box 67, P.O Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa

    A. R. Turton

Authors
  1. Y. S. Nyam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. H. Kotir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A. J. Jordaan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. A. A. Ogundeji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. A. R. Turton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Y. S. Nyam.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study received an ethical clearance and each participant signed a consent form.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix 1 Summary of workshops and participants

Appendix 1 Summary of workshops and participants

Workshops

Date of workshop

Stakeholder group

Number of participants

Male

Female

Total

AgriSA (Western Cape)

12/09/2018

Agri Northern Cape Vice President

Agri Western Cape President

AgriSA Head Natural Resources

AgriSA Natural Resources

AgriSA officer: Water

AgriSA: International Trade

7

2

9

National African Farmers Union (NAFU) (Gauteng)

14/11/2018

Smallholder and emerging Farmers

7

1

8

African Farmers Association of South Africa (AFASA) (Gauteng)

20/11/2018

Smallholder and emerging Farmers

6

2

8

National Symposium (Gauteng)

29/11/2018

Absa Bank

FNB Bank

Standard Bank

Land Bank

National Disaster management centre

Agricultural Business Chamber

AgriSA

Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF)

Agricultural Research Council (ARC)

University of the Free State

30

16

46

Elsenburg workshop (Western Cape)

03/04/2019

Department of Agriculture, Western Cape (WC DoA)

Department of Environment and Development planning (DEA/DP)

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

Green Cape

City of Cape Town

Department of Economic Development and Tourism Western Cape

10

13

23

Nelspruit (Mpumalanga)

24/07/2019

Department of Agriculture (Mpumalanga)

Commercial farmers

Cane Growers Association

World Focus Agri

9

0

9

Stellenbosch Workshop (Western Cape)

29/07/2019

Department of Agriculture, Western Cape (WC DoA)

Western Cape Farmers Association

Commercial farmers

8

1

9

QwaQwa (Free State)

13/09/2019

Smallholder farmers

8

5

13

U**ton Workshop (Northern Cape)

02/10/2019

Department of Agriculture, Northern Cape

Commercial farmers

Agri Northern Cape

5

1

6

Total

  

90

41

131

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nyam, Y.S., Kotir, J.H., Jordaan, A.J. et al. Drivers of change in sustainable water management and agricultural development in South Africa: a participatory approach. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 6, 62 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-020-00420-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-020-00420-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation