SpringerLink
Log in

Reading Performance and Self-regulated Learning of Hong Kong Students: What We Learnt from PISA 2009

  • Regular Article
  • Published:
The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The outperformance of Chinese students in large-scale international assessments has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. This study explored the relationship between an important student factor, self-regulated learning (SRL), and Hong Kong students’ reading performance on Programme of International Student Assessment (PISA). Using data from PISA 2009, this study found that Hong Kong students obtained an overall strong performance on the PISA 2009 reading assessment. They were relatively good at reflecting and evaluating and reading continuous texts. Compared with the OECD average, Hong Kong students showed better reading engagement and perceived a more positive classroom disciplinary climate in their reading lessons, but they used fewer control strategies, had poorer awareness of effective reading strategies, and perceived a lower degree of teacher stimulation and scaffolding. Reading enjoyment and control strategies were the most important SRL components facilitating Hong Kong students’ reading performance, after controlling for other background variables in multilevel analysis. Possible cultural and contextual factors affecting Hong Kong students’ SRL and reading performance, and their relationship are discussed to shed light for understanding the paradox of Chinese learners and improving the instructional practices in Chinese classes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Germany)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Although Hong Kong is a city of the PRC, it maintains its own education system under ‘one country, two systems’. Hong Kong’s school curriculum and public examinations are separate from mainland China’s.

  2. The first PISA cycle, PISA 2000, only involved OECD countries. Hong Kong joined PISA 2000 + in 2002 with other non-OECD countries and regions. The assessment of PISA 2000 + was the same as PISA 2000.

  3. Electronic reading was added as an optional assessment in PISA 2009, but this paper only focuses on the paper-based assessment of reading.

References

  • Borkowski, J. G. (1992). Metacognitive theory: A framework for teaching literacy, writing, and Math skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(4), 253–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. (2002). Straddling two worlds: Self-directed comprehension instruction for middle schoolers. In C. C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (pp. 337–350). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, D. L. (2002). Qualitative approaches to investigating self-regulated learning: Contributions and challenges. Educational Psychologist, 37, 59–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, K. K., & Rao, N. (2009). The paradoxes revisited: The Chinese learner in changing educational contexts. In K. K. Chan & N. Rao (Eds.), Revisiting the Chinese learner: Changing contexts, changing education (pp. 315–350). Hong Kong: Springer: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, B. L. (2001). The relations among motivation, goal setting, action control, and learning strategies: The construct and verification of self-regulated learning process model (in Chinese). Journal of Taiwan Normal University: Education, 46, 67–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1993). Strategy mastery by at-risk students: Not a simple matter. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 153–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dignath, C., & Buttner, G. (2008). Components of fostering self-regulated learning among students: A meta-analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level. Metacognition Learning, 3, 231–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Efklides, A. (2011). Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affect in self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist, 46, 6–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gow, L., Balla, J., Dember, D., & Hau, K. T. (1996). The learning approaches of Chinese people: A function of socialization processes and the context of learning? In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese Psychology (pp. 109–123). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, J. T., & Alao, S. (1997). Designing contexts to increase motivations for reading. Educational Psychologist, 32, 95–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, J. T., & Davis, M. H. (2003). Motivating struggling readers in middle school through an engagement model of classroom practice. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 59–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mobenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 403–420). New York: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilden, K. R., & Pressley, M. (2007). Self-regulated through transactional strategies instruction. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23, 51–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, D. Y. (1994). Cognitive socialization in Confucian heritage cultures. In P. Greenfield & R. Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child development (pp. 285–314). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho, M. S. (1999). Evaluating the Chinese language curriculum from an ability training perspective (in Chinese). Hong Kong: Culture and Education Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho, E. S. C. (2009). Characteristics of East Asian learners: What we learned from PISA. Educational Research Journal, 24(2), 327–348.

  • Ho, D. Y., Peng, S. Q., & Chan, F. S. (2001). An investigative research in teaching and learning in Chinese society. In C. Y. Chiu, F. Salili, & Y. Y. Hong (Eds.), Multiple competencies and self-regulated learning: Implications for multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 215–244). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojo, M., & Oshio, T. (2012). What factors determine student performance in East Asia? New evidence from the 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. Asian Economic Journal, 26, 333–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council (HKCDC). (2001a). Learning to learn—The way forward in curriculum. Hong Kong: Government Printer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council (HKCDC). (2001b). Chinese language education curriculum guide (junior and senior secondary grades) (in Chinese). Hong Kong: Government Printer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, S. L., & Shwery, C. S. (2002). Becoming an engaged, self-regulated reader. Theory Into Practice, 41, 102–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Housand, A., & Reis, S. M. (2008). Self-regulated learning in reading: Gifted pedagogy and instructional settings. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20, 108–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeynes, W. (2008). What we should and should not learn from the Japanese and other East Asian education system. Educational Policy, 22, 900–927.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kember, D., & Gow, L. (1991). A challenge to the anecdotal stereotype of the Asian student. Studies in Higher Education, 16, 117–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, K. L. (2006). Reading strategy use between Chinese good and poor readers: A think-aloud study. Journal of Research in Reading, 29, 367–382.

  • Lau, K. L. (2012). Instructional practices and self-regulated learning in Chinese language classes. Educational Psychology, 32, 427–450.

  • Lau, K. L. (2013). Chinese language teachers’ perception and implementation of self-regulated learning-based instruction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 31, 56–66.

  • Lau, K. L., & Chan, D. W. (2003). Reading strategy use and motivation among Chinese good readers and poor readers in Hong Kong. Journal of Research in Reading, 26, 177–190.

  • Law, Y. K., Chan, C. K., & Sachs, J. (2008). Beliefs about learning, self-regulated strategies and text comprehension among Chinese children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 51–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. (2014). Universal factors of students achievement in high-performing Eastern and Western countries. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 364–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, F. K. S. (2002). Behind the high achievement of East Asian students. Educational Research and Evaluation, 8, 87–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, H., Lei, P. W., & Pace, C. L. (2013). Reading subskill differences between students in Shanghai-China and the US: Evidence from PISA 2009. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19, 490–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and develo** autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20, 71–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, S., Medford, E., & Hughes, N. (2011). The importance of intrinsic motivation for high and low ability readers‘ reading comprehension performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 124–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombaerts, K., Engels, N., & van Braak, J. (2009). Determinants to teachers’ recognitions of self-regulated learning practices in elementary education. The Journal of Educational Research, 102, 163–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGeown, S. P., Norgate, R., & Warhurst, A. (2012). Exploring intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation among very good and very poor readers. Educational Research, 54, 309–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McInerney, D. M. (2008). The motivational roles of cultural differences and cultural identity in self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 369–400). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, K. (2006). Paradox lost: Toward a robust test of the Chinese learner. Education Journal, 34(1), 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2009). PISA 2009 Assessment Framework: Key competencies in reading, mathematics and science. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/44455820.pdf.

  • OECD (2010a). PISA 2009 results: Vol. 1. What students know and can do: Student performance in reading, mathematics and science. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48852548.pdf.

  • OECD (2010b). PISA 2009 results: Vol. 3. Learning to learn: Student engagement, strategies and practices. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48852630.pdf.

  • OECD (2011). Shanghai and Hong Kong: Two distinct examples of education reform in China. In OECD (Ed.), Lessons from PISA for the United States (pp. 83–109). Paris: OECD.

  • Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paris, S. G., & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 36, 89–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E. (1998). Young children’s self-regulated learning and contexts that support it. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 715–729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E., Hutchinson, L., & Thauberger, C. (2007). Mentoring student teachers to design and implement literacy tasks that support self-regulated reading and writing. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23, 27–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E., Phillips, L., & Dowler, J. (2004). Examining features of tasks and their potential to promote self-regulated learning. Teachers College Record, 106, 1854–1878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E., Phillips, L., & Hutchinson, L. (2006). Mentoring student teachers to support self-regulated learning. The Elementary School Journal, 106, 237–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E., & VandeKamp, K. O. (2000). Creating classroom contexts that support young children’s development of self-regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 33, 821–843.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, N. E., VandeKamp, K. O., Mercer, L. K., & Nordby, C. J. (2002). Investigating teacher-student interactions that foster self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 31, 5–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal-orientation in SRL. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeider (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 451–502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., Conley, A. M., & Kempler, T. M. (2003). Current issues in achievement goal theory and research. International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 319–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., Roeser, R. W., & DeGroot, E. A. (1994). Classroom and individual differences in early adolescents’ motivation and self-regulated learning. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 139–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., & Schrauben, B. (1992). Students’ motivational beliefs and their cognitive engagement in classroom academic tasks. In D. H. Schunk & J. I. Meece (Eds.), Student perception in the classroom (pp. 149–183). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., & Zusho, A. (2002). The development of academic self-regulation: The role of cognitive and motivational factors. In A. Wigfield & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 249–284). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., Wharton-McDonald, R., & Brown, R. (1998). Transactional instruction of comprehension strategies in the elementary grades. In D. M. Schunk & R. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 42–55). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Retelsdorf, J., Koller, O., & Moller, J. (2011). On the effects of motivation on reading performance growth in secondary school. Learning and Instruction, 21, 550–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, C. (1998). Motivational indicators in the United Kingdom and the People’s Republic of China. Educational Psychology, 18(3), 275–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salili, F. (1996). Achievement motivation: A cross-cultural comparison of British and Chinese students. Educational Psychology, 16(3), 271–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Ertmer, P. A. (2000). Self-Regulation and academic learning: Self-efficacy enhancing interventions. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 631–650). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Develo** self-efficacious readers and writers: The role of social and self-regulatory processes. In J. T. Guthrie & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Reading engagement: Motivating readers through integrated instruction (pp. 34–50). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. W. (1993). Why Asian students still outdistance Americans. Educational Leadership, 50(5), 63–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, M., & Neber, H. (2008). Motivation and self-regulated science learning in high-achieving students: Differences related to nation, gender, and grade-level. High Ability Studies, 19, 103–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tse, S. K., Chan, W. S., Ho, W. K., Law, N., Lee, T., Shek, C., & Yu, F. Y. (1995). Chinese language education for the 21st century: A Hong Kong perspective. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C. (1995). The influence of classroom contexts on young children’s motivation for literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 410–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. B. (2001). The paradox of Chinese learner and beyond. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 3–26). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, D., Reghi, M., & Astilla, E. (1991). The-Asian-learner-as-a-rote-learner stereotype: Myth or reality? Educational Psychology, 11, 21–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigfield, A. (1997). Reading motivation: A domain-specific approach to motivation. Educational Psychologist, 32, 59–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winnie, P. H., & Perry, N. E. (2000). Measuring self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 531–566). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wolters, C. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (1998). Contextual differences in student motivation and self-regulated learning in mathematics, English, and social studies classrooms. Instructional Science, 26, 27–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M., & Kong, L. (2012). An exploration of reasons for Shanghai’s success in the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009. Frontiers of Education in China, 7, 124–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L. J., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high school EFL students’ metacognitive awareness and use of reading strategies. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(1), 37–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview and analysis. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 1–38). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinex-Pons, M. (1988). Construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 284–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong

    Kit-ling Lau & Esther Sui-chu Ho

Authors
  1. Kit-ling Lau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Esther Sui-chu Ho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kit-ling Lau.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lau, Kl., Ho, E.Sc. Reading Performance and Self-regulated Learning of Hong Kong Students: What We Learnt from PISA 2009. Asia-Pacific Edu Res 25, 159–171 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0246-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0246-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation