SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of rotation length on the grade recovery and wood properties of Sitka spruce structural timber grown in Great Britain

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Annals of Forest Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

Rotation length is known to affect timber quality in many plantation species, but its effect on the properties of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) structural timber has not been quantified.

Aim

Te purpose of this study was to compare selected wood properties and grade recovery of Sitka spruce structural timber cut from different radial positions within a log reflecting different cambial ages.

Methods

Structural timber was sawn from 60 logs harvested from an 83-year-old stand in Great Britain. Five specimens were tested from each log: four from consecutive radial positions out from the pith and the fifth a random selection from outside the innermost 15 rings.

Results

Mean modulus of elasticity and bending strength of timber from the outermost radial position were 51% and 41% greater, respectively, than for timber from adjacent to the pith. Wood density differed by 9% between these positions. The amount of distortion (spring, twist and bow), knot frequency and total knot area was significantly higher in timber cut from adjacent to the pith.

Conclusion

Whilst longer rotations result in timber with improved mechanical properties and less distortion, economic and windthrow considerations may limit their implementation in Great Britain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Germany)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bao FC, Jiang ZH, Jiang XM, Lu XX, Luo XQ, Zhang SY (2001) Differences in wood properties between juvenile and mature wood in 10 species grown in China. Wood Sci Technol 35:363–375

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett JD, Kellog RM (1991) Bending strength and stiffness of second-growth Douglas-fir dimension lumber. Forest Prod J 41:35–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Bendtsen BA, Senft J (1986) Mechanical and anatomical properties in individual growth rings of plantation-grown eastern cottonwood and loblolly pine. Wood Fiber Sci 18:23–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilbis EJ, Brinker R, Carino HF, McKee CW (1993) Effects of stand age on flexural properties and grade compliance of lumber from loblolly pine plantation timber. Forest Prod J 43:23–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazier JD (1985) Juvenile wood. In: Kuchera LJ (ed) Xylorama trends in wood research. Birkhauser, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazier JD, Mobbs ID (1993) The influence of planting distance on structural wood yields of unthinned Sitka spruce. Forestry 66:333–352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CEN (1997) Round and sawn timber—method of measurement of features. EN1310:1997. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 15 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • CEN (2002) Moisture content of a piece of sawn timber—part 1: Determination by oven dry method. EN13183-1:2002. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 5 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • CEN (2003) Timber structures—structural timber and glued laminated timber—determination of some physical and mechanical properties. EN408:2003. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 13 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • CEN (2005) Timber structures—Strength graded structural timber with rectangular cross section. Part 1: General requirements. EN 14081–1:2005. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 29 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • CEN (2009) Structural timber—Strength classes. EN338:2009. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 10 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • CEN (2010a) Structural timber—determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties and density. EN384:2010. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 19 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • CEN (2010b) Timber structures—strength graded structural timber with rectangular cross section. Part 2: Machine grading; additional requirements for initial type testing. EN 14081–2:2010. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 21 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark A III, McAlister RH, Saucier JR, Reitter K (1996) Effect of rotation age on lumber grade, yield, and strength of unthinned loblolly pine. Forest Prod J 46:63–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Cown DJ, McConchie DL (1982) Rotation age and silvicultural effects on wood properties of four stands of Pinus radiata. N Z J Forestry Sci 12:71–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Cown DJ, Ball RD, Riddell M, Wilcox P (2002) Microfibril angle in plantation pine: distribution and influence on product performance. IUFRO Working Party S5.01.04 Workshop, Harrison Hot Springs, Canada, September 2002

  • Duchesne I (2006) Effect of rotation age on lumber grade yield, bending strength and stiffness in Jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) natural stands. Wood Fiber Sci 38:84–94

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans R, Ilic J (2001) Rapid prediction of wood stiffness from microfibril angle and density. Forest Prod J 51:53–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Forest Products Laboratory (2010) Wood handbook: wood as an engineering material. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-113. USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Society, Madison

    Google Scholar 

  • Forestry Commission (2010) Forestry statistics 2010—a compendium of statistics about woodland, forestry and primary wood processing in the United Kingdom, 208 pp. http://www.forestry.gov.uk/statistics

  • Ilic J, Northway R, Pongracic S (2003) Juvenile wood characteristics, effects and identification: literature review. FWPRDC Report PN02.1907. Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • ISO (1975) Wood—determination of density for physical and mechanical tests. ISO 3131: 1975. International Organization for Standardisation, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson M, Perstorper M, Kliger R (2001) Distortion of Norway spruce timber—part 2. Modelling twist. Holz Roh Werkst 59:155–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan L, Daniels RF, Clark A, He R (2005) Multilevel nonlinear mixed-effects models for the modeling of earlywood and latewood microfibril angle. Forest Sci 51:357–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy RW (1995) Coniferous wood quality in the future: concerns and strategies. Wood Sci Technol 29:321–338

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kliger IR, Perstorper M, Johansson G, Pellicane PJ (1995) Quality of timber products from Norway spruce—part 3. Influence of spatial position and growth characteristics on bending stiffness and strength. Wood Sci Technol 29:397–410

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koponen T, Karppinen T, Hæggström, Saranpää P, Serimaa R (2005) The stiffness modulus in Norway spruce. Holzforchung 59:451–455

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lachenbruch B, Moore JR, Evans R (2011) Radial variation in wood structure and function in woody plants, and hypotheses for its occurrence. In: Meinzer FC, Dawson T, Lachenbruch B (eds) Size and Age-Related Variation in Tree Structure and Function. Springer Series in Tree Physiology

  • Larson PR, Kretschmann DE, Clark A III, Isebrands JG (2001) Formation and properties of juvenile wood in southern pines: a synopsis. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-129. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, 42 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald E, Hubert J (2002) A review of the effects of silviculture on timber quality of Sitka spruce. Forestry 75:107–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald E, Gardiner B, Mason W (2010) The effects of transformation of even-aged stands to continuous cover forestry on conifer log quality and wood properties in the UK. Forestry 83:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLean JP (2008) Wood properties of four genotypes of Sitka spruce. PhD thesis, Department of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, University of Glasgow, UK, 269 pp

  • McLean JP, Evans R, Moore JR (2010) Predicting the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of Sitka spruce from cellulose orientation and abundance. Holzforschung 64:495–500

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller KF (1985) Windthrow hazard classification. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 85. HMSO, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Mochan S, Connolly T (2006) The effect of windblow on the timber quality of Sitka spruce. Scott Forestry 60:15–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore JR, Mochan SJ, Brüchert F, Hapca AI, Ridley-Ellis DJ, Gardiner BA, Lee SJ (2009) Effects of genetics on the wood properties of Sitka spruce growing in the United Kingdom: bending strength and stiffness of structural timber. Forestry 82:491–501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ormarsson S, Cown DJ (2005) Moisture-related distortion of boards and wooden products of radiata pine: comparison with Norway spruce: Wood Fiber Sci 37:424–436

    Google Scholar 

  • Perstorper M, Pellicane PJ, Kliger IR, Johansson G (1995) Quality of timber products from Norway spruce. Part 2: Influence of spatial position and growth characteristics on warp. Wood Sci Technol 29:339–352

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pinheiro JC, Bates DM (2000) Mixed-effects models in S and S-Plus. Springer, New York, 528 pp

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt JE (1979) Fomes annosus butt-rot of Sitka spruce: II. Loss of strength of wood in various categories of rot. Forestry 52:31–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quine CP, Malcolm DC (2007) Wind-driven gap development in Birkley Wood, a long-term retention of planted Sitka spruce in upland Britain. Can J Forest Res 37:1787–1796

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quine C, Coutts M, Gardiner B, Pyatt G (1995) Forests and wind: management to minimise damage. Bulletin 114. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, 24 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • R Development Core Team (2010) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. http://www.R-project.org

  • Seeling U, Merforth C (2000) FRITS—a new equipment to measure distortion. Holz Roh Werkst 58:338–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker JCF (2006) Primary wood processing: principles and practice, 2nd edn. Springer, Dordrecht, 596 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker JCF, Butterfield BG (1995) The importance of microfibril angle for the processing industries. New Zeal J Forest 40:34–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker JCF, Nakada R (1999) Understanding corewood in some softwoods: a selective review on stiffness and acoustics. Int Forest Rev 1:251–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu P, Walker JCF (2004) Stiffness gradients in radiata pine trees. Wood Sci Technol 38:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zobel BJ, Sprague JR (1998) Juvenile wood in forest trees. Springer, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Dr Chris Quine from Forest Research alerted us to the potential opportunity to study the wood properties of older trees at Birkley Wood. The Kielder Forest District staff, in particular Graham Gill, David Woodhouse and Simon Banks, allowed us access to the stand and arranged assistance with felling and processing of the trees. Francis Wilbur from James Jones & Sons sawmills arranged the processing, drying and grading of the timber. Greg Searles assisted with the fieldwork and the mechanical testing. Martin Bacher from MiCROTEC assisted with analysis of the strength grading data. Dr. Barry Gardiner from Forest Research assisted with develo** the original project proposal and, along with Dr. Dan Ridley-Ellis, Dr Dave Auty and Elspeth Macdonald, provided comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. Funding for this study was provided by the Scottish Funding Council and the Scottish Forestry Trust.

Author information

Author notes

  1. John R. Moore

    Present address: Scion, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, 3046, New Zealand

  2. Andrew J. Lyon

    Present address: Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, WA, 6151, Australia

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Forest Products Research Institute, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, EH10 5DT, UK

    John R. Moore, Andrew J. Lyon & Stefan Lehneke

Authors
  1. John R. Moore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andrew J. Lyon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Stefan Lehneke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John R. Moore.

Additional information

Handling Editor: Barry Alan Gardiner

Contribution of co-authors

John Moore initiated the study, undertook field and laboratory measurements, analysed the data and wrote the final paper.

Andrew Lyon assisted with develo** the methodology for the study, organised the fieldwork and timber processing in the sawmill, assisted with field and laboratory measurements and contributed to the final report.

Stefan Lehneke assisted with the laboratory measurements and contributed to the final report.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Moore, J.R., Lyon, A.J. & Lehneke, S. Effects of rotation length on the grade recovery and wood properties of Sitka spruce structural timber grown in Great Britain. Annals of Forest Science 69, 353–362 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0168-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0168-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation