Abstract
Objectives
Trait mindfulness can be used to refer to one’s predisposition toward present-moment attention and awareness in everyday life. Increases in trait mindfulness are thought to result from states of heightened mindfulness achieved during practice over time. A significant amount of research has examined the effects of mindfulness practice on psychological well-being, including improved emotion regulation. However, it is not well understood whether this improved emotion regulation is associated with an increase or decrease in emotional reactivity when facing a negatively valenced stressor.
Methods
We conducted two studies (N = 88; N = 95, and N = 65) to assess the relationship between trait mindfulness (assessed using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) and emotional reactivity to an induced stressor in the laboratory.
Results
In study 1, individuals with higher levels of Acting with Awareness exhibited less negatively valenced emotional reactivity in response to the induced stressor. In study 2, individuals with higher levels of overall trait mindfulness represented by acting with awareness, non-reactivity, and non-judgment exhibited less negatively valenced emotional reactivity in response to the induced stressor.
Conclusions
Results from both studies suggest that certain qualities of mindfulness may provide individuals with the ability to notice and engage with stress-induced emotions in an adaptive way, resulting in reduced negatively valenced emotions.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albinoni, T.G. (1981). Adagio in G minor for organ and strings [Recorded by I Solisti Veneti, conducted by C. Scimone]. On Albinoni’s adagios [CD]. Perivale, England: Warner Classics.
Arch, J. J., & Craske, M. G. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness: Emotion regulation following a focused breathing induction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(12), 1849–1858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.12.007.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., Walsh, E., Duggan, D., & Williams, J. M. G. (2008). Construct validity of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15(3), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191107313003.
Barber, S. (1939). Adagio for strings, op. 11. New York, NY: G. Schirmer.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. F. (1996). Comparison of beck depression inventories- IA and-II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67(3), 588–597. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_13.
Beethoven, L.V. (1805). Piano Concerto No. 4, op. 58 in G Major: III. Rondo: Vivace.
Beshai, S., Prentice, J. L., & Huang, V. (2018). Building blocks of emotional flexibility: Trait mindfulness and self-compassion are associated with positive and negative mood shifts. Mindfulness, 9(3), 939–948. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0833-8.
Britton, W. B., Shahar, B., Szepsenwol, O., & Jacobs, W. J. (2012). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy improves emotional reactivity to social stress: Results from a randomized controlled trial. Behavior Therapy, 43(2), 365–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.08.006.
Brown, D. B., Bravo, A. J., Roos, C. R., & Pearson, M. R. (2015). Five facets of mindfulness and psychological health: Evaluating a psychological model of the mechanisms of mindfulness. Mindfulness, 6(5), 1021–1032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0349-4.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822.
Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415.
de Bruin, E. I., Topper, M., Muskens, J. G. A. M., Bögels, S. M., & Kamphuis, J. H. (2012). Psychometric properties of the five facets mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ) in a meditating and a non-meditating sample. Assessment, 19(2), 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191112446654.
Desrosiers, A., Vine, V., Curtiss, J., & Klemanski, D. H. (2014). Observing nonreactively: A conditional process model linking mindfulness facets, cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and depression and anxiety symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 165, 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.04.024.
Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Walsh, E. C., Charnigo, R. J., Lynam, D. R., & Baer, R. A. (2012). The “what” and the “how” of dispositional mindfulness: Using interactions among subscales of the five-facet mindfulness questionnaire to understand its relation to substance use. Assessment, 19(3), 276–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191112446658.
Farb, N. A. S., Anderson, A. K., & Segal, Z. V. (2012). The mindful brain and emotion regulation in mood disorders. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(2), 70–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700203.
Frewen, P. A., Evans, E. M., Maraj, N., Dozois, D. J. A., & Partridge, K. (2008). Letting go: Mindfulness and negative automatic thinking. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32(6), 758–774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9142-1.
Gerrards-Hesse, A., Spies, K., & Hesse, F. W. (1994). Experimental inductions of emotional states and their effectiveness: A review. British Journal of Psychology, 85(1), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1994.tb02508.x.
Goldberg, S. B., Tucker, R. P., Greene, P. A., Davidson, R. J., Wampold, B. E., Kearney, D. J., & Simpson, T. L. (2018). Mindfulness-based interventions for psychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 59, 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.011.
Gross, J. J. (1998a). Antecedent-and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.224.
Gross, J. J. (1998b). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271.
Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048577201393198.
Grossman, P. (2008). On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(4), 405–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.001.
Grossman, P., & Van Dam, N. T. (2011). Mindfulness, by any other name…: Trials and tribulations of sati in western psychology and science. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 219–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564841.
Hargus, E., Crane, C., Barnhopfer, T., & Williams, J. M. G. (2010). Effects of mindfulness on meta-awareness and specificity of describing prodromal symptoms in suicidal depression. Emotion, 10, 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016825.
Hoge, E. A., Philip, S. R., & Fulwiler, C. (2019). Considerations for mood and emotion measures in mindfulness-based intervention research. Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 279–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.02.001.
Jamieson, S. (2004). Likert scales: How to (ab) use them. Medical Education, 38(12), 1217–1218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.02012.x.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.
Kiken, L. G., Garland, E. L., Bluth, K., Palsson, O. S., & Gaylord, S. A. (2015). From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044.
Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012.
Leigh, J., & Neighbors, C. (2009). Enhancement motives mediate the positive association between mind/body awareness and college student drinking. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(5), 650–669. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.5.650.
Lilja, J. L., Lundh, L.-G., Josefsson, T., & Falkenström, F. (2013). Observing as an essential facet of mindfulness: A comparison of FFMQ patterns in meditating and non-meditating individuals. Mindfulness, 4(3), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0111-8.
MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.1.84.
Mayberg, H. S., Liotti, M., Brannan, S. K., McGinnis, S., Mahurin, R. K., Jerabek, P. A., Silva, J. A., Tekell, J. L., Martin, C. C., Lancaster, J. L., & Fox, P. T. (1999). Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: Converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(5), 675–682. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.5.675.
McKenna, F. P., & Lewis, C. (1994). A speech rate measure of laboratory induced affect: The role of demand characteristics revisited. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 345–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1994.tb01130.x.
Medvedev, O. N., Norden, P. A., Krägeloh, C. U., & Siegert, R. J. (2018). Investigating unique contributions of dispositional mindfulness facets to depression, anxiety, and stress in general and student populations. Mindfulness, 9(6), 1757–1767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0917-0.
Mozart, W.A. (1787). Serenade No. 13 KV 525 G-Major: I. Serenade, Allegro.
Nyklíček, I., van Beugen, S., & Denollet, J. (2013). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on distressed (type D) personality traits: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 36(4), 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9431-3.
Ortner, C. N. M., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31(4), 271–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-007-9076-7.
Peters, J. R., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Upton, B. T., & Baer, R. A. (2013). Nonjudgment as a moderator of the relationship between present-centered awareness and borderline features: Synergistic interactions in mindfulness assessment. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(1), 24–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.021.
Piñerua-Shuhaibar, L., Villalobos, N., Delgado, N., Rubio, M. A., & Suarez-Roca, H. (2011). Enhanced central thermal nociception in mildly depressed nonpatients and transiently sad healthy subjects. The Journal of Pain, 12(3), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2010.08.002.
Robinson, O. J., Grillon, C., & Sahakian, B. J. (2012). The mood induction task: A standardized, computerized laboratory procedure for altering mood state in humans. Protocol Exchange, 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/protex.2012.007.
Roemer, L., Williston, S. K., & Rollins, L. G. (2015). Mindfulness and emotion regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3, 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.02.006.
Rudkin, E., Medvedev, O. N., & Siegert, R. J. (2018). The five-facet mindfulness questionnaire: Why the observing subscale does not predict psychological symptoms. Mindfulness, 9(1), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0766-2.
Sanz, J. (2001). An instrument to evaluate the efficacy of mood induction procedures: The scale for mood assessment. Análisis y Modificación de Conducta, 27(111), 71–110.
Schooler, J. W. (2002). Re-representing consciousness: Dissociations between experience and meta-consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(8), 339–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01949-6.
Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., Thoresen, C., & Plante, T. G. (2011). The moderation of mindfulness-based stress reduction effects by trait mindfulness: Results from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20761.
Siegling, A. B., & Petrides, K. V. (2016). Zeroing in on mindfulness facets: Similarities, validity, and dimensionality across three independent measures. PLoS One, 11(4), e0153073. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153073.
Teper, R., Segal, Z. V., & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Inside the mindful mind: How mindfulness enhances emotion regulation through improvements in executive control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(6), 449–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413495869.
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561.
Van Dam, N. T., Sheppard, S. C., Forsyth, J. P., & Earleywine, M. (2011). Self-compassion is a better predictor than mindfulness of symptom severity and quality of life in mixed anxiety and depression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(1), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.011.
Van Dam, N.T., van Vugt, M.K., Vago, D.R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C.D., Olendzki, A., Meissner, T., Lazar, S.W., Kerr, C.E., Gorchov, J., Fox., K.C.R., Field, B.A., Britton, W.B., Brefczynski-Lewis, J.A., & Meyer, D.E. (2018). Mind the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709589.
Velten Jr., E. (1968). A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6(4), 473–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(68)90028-4.
Westermann, R., Spies, K., Stahl, G., & Hesse, F. W. (1996). Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26(4), 557–580. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(199607)26:4<557::aid-ejsp769>3.0.co;2-4.
Wolf, E. J., Harrington, K. M., Clark, S. L., & Miller, M. W. (2013). Sample size requirements for structural equation models: An evaluation of power, bias, and solution propriety. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73(6), 913–934. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164413495237.
Acknowledgments
Think Ahead Group Research Award (2015, LH), Friends of BrainHealth Distinguished New Scientist Award (2017, LH; 2018, LH).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LH designed and executed the study, performed the data analysis, and wrote the paper. NAH collaborated in the design of the study. GBM collaborated in conducting data analysis and contributed to editing of the manuscript. JG collaborated with the design and execution of the study. MPT collaborated with the design of the study. BR collaborated in the design and execution of the study, collaborated in data analysis, and oversaw and contributed to the writing and editing of the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Statement of Ethics
All research procedures received approval by the University of Texas at Dallas Institutional Review Board.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was received from all individuals who participated in this research.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Himes, L., Hubbard, N.A., Maruthy, G.B. et al. The Relationship between Trait Mindfulness and Emotional Reactivity Following Mood Manipulation. Mindfulness 12, 170–185 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01510-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01510-7