Abstract
Chitin, the most abundant aminopolysaccharide in nature, is a rigid and resistant structural component that contributes to the mechanical strength of chitin-containing organisms. Chemically, it is a linear cationic heteropolysaccharide composed of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine units. The enzymatic degradation of chitin is performed by a chitinolytic system with synergistic and consecutive action. Diverse organisms (containing chitin or not) produce a great variety of chitinolytic enzymes with different specificities and catalytic properties. Their physiological roles involve nutrition, parasitism, chitin recycling, morphogenesis, and/or defense. Microorganisms, as the main environmental chitin degraders, constitute a very important natural source of chitinolytic enzymes. Nowadays, the most used method for pest and plant diseases control is the utilization of chemical agents, causative of significant environmental pollution. Social concern has generated the search for alternative control systems (i.e., biological control), which contribute to the generation of sustainable agricultural development. Interactions among the different organisms are the natural bases of biological control. Interest in chitinolytic enzymes in the field of biological control has arisen due to their possible involvement in antagonistic activity against pathogenic chitin-containing organisms. The absence of chitin in plants and vertebrate animals allows the consideration of safe and selective “target” molecules for control of chitin-containing pathogenic organisms. Fungi show appropriate characteristics as potential biological control agents of insects, fungi, and nematodes due to the production of fungal enzymes with antagonistic action. The antagonistic interactions between fungi and plant nematode parasites are among the most studied experimental models because of the high economic relevance. Fungi which target nematodes are known as nematophagous fungi. The nematode egg is the only structural element where the presence of chitin has been demonstrated. In spite of being one of the most resistant biological structures, eggs are susceptible to being attacked by egg-parasitic fungi. A combination of physical and chemical phenomena result in their complete destruction. The contribution of fungal chitinases to the in vitro rupture of the eggshell confirms their role as a pathogenic factor. Chitinases have been produced by traditional fermentation methods, which have been improved by optimizing the culture conditions for industrial processes. Although wild-type microorganisms constitute an alternative source of chitinolytic enzymes, the advances in molecular biology are allowing the genetic transformation of fungi to obtain strains with high capability as biocontrol agents. Simultaneously, a better understanding of rhizosphere interactions, additional to the discovery of new molecular biology tools, will allow the choosing of better alternatives for the biological control of nematodes in order to achieve an integrated management of the soil ecosystem.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams DJ (2004) Fungal cell wall chitinases and glucanases. Microbiology 150:2029–2035. doi:10.1099/mic.0.26980-0
Adekunle OK, Akinsanmi OA (2005) Bioactivity of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. glycines and Sclerotium rolfsii filtrates on egg hatching, survival and infectivity of juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita race 2. Aust J Exp Agric 45:99–102. doi:10.1071/EA02129
Ǻhman J, Johansson T, Olsson M, Punt PJ, van den Hondel CAMJJ, Tunlid A (2002) Improving the pathogenicity of a nematode-trap** fungus by genetic engineering of a subtilisin with nematotoxic activity. Appl Environ Microb 68:3408–3415
Akhtar M, Malik A (2000) Roles of organic soil amendments and soil organisms in the biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes: a review. Biores Technol 74:35–47
Araujo JV, Santos MA, Ferraz S (1995) Efeito ovicida de fungus nematófagos sobre ovos embrionados de Toxocara canis. Arq Bras Med Vet Zoo 47:37–42 (in Portuguese)
Archer DB, Wood DA (1995) Fungal exoenzymes. In: Gow NAR, Gadd GM (eds) The growing fungus. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 137–162
Atkins SD, Clark IM (2004) Fungal molecular diagnostics: a mini review. J Appl Genet 45(1):3–15
Atkins SD, Clark IM, Pande S, Hirsch PR, Kerry BR (2005) The use of real-time PCR and species-specific primers for the identification and monitoring of Paecilomyces lilacinus. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 51:257–264
Barea JM, Pozo MJ, Azcón R, Azcón-Aguilar C (2005) Microbial co-operation in the rhizosphere. J Exp Bot 56(417):1761–1778
Benítez T, Rincón AM, Limón MC, Codón AC (2004) Biocontrol mechanisms of Trichoderma strains. Int Microbiol 7:249–260
Bernard N (1911) Sur la fonction fungicide des bulbes d’ophrydées. Am Sci Nat Bot Paris 14:221–234. Fide Flach et al. (1992)
Bidochka MJ, St Leger RJ, Stuart A, Gowanlock K (1999) Nuclear rDNA phylogeny in the fungal genus Verticillium and its relationship to insect and plant virulence, extracellular proteases and carbohydrases. Microbiology 145:955–963
Binod P, Pusztahelyi T, Nagy V, Sandhya C, Szakács G, Pósci I, Pandey A (2005) Production and purification of extracellular chitinases from Penicillium aculeatum NRRL 2129 under solid-state fermentation. Enzyme Microb Tech 36:880–887
Bonants PJM, Fitters PFL, Thijs H, Den Belder E, Waalwijk C, Henfling JWDM (1995) A basic serine protease from Paecilomyces lilacinus with biological activity against Meloidogyne hapla eggs. Microbiology 141:775–784
Bordallo JJ, López-Llorca LV, Jansson H-B, Salinas J, Persmark L, Asensio L (2002) Colonization of plant roots by egg-parasitic and nematode-trap** fungi. New Phytol 154:491–499
Brand D, Roussos S, Pandey A, Zilioli PC, Pohl J, Soccol CR (2004) Development of a bionematicide with Paecilomyces lilacinus to control Meloidogyne incognita. Appl Biochem Biotech 118:81–88
Burgwyn B, Nagel B, Ryerse J, Bolla RI (2003) Heterodera glycines: eggshell ultrastructure and histochemical localization of chitinous components. Exp Parasitol 104:47–53
Chaves EJ (2004) Nemátodos en cultivos hortícolas. In: Seminario de Avances en la sustitución/eliminación del bromuro de metilo en la desinfección de suelos y sustratos. INTA-EEA Balcarce – Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata-Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, pp 52–58 (in Spanish)
Chen F, Chen S (2002) Mycofloras in cysts, females, and eggs of the soybean cyst nematode in Minnesota. Appl Soil Ecol 19:35–50
Chen SY, Chen FJ (2003) Fungal parasitism of Heterodera glycines eggs as influenced by egg age and pre-colonization of cysts by other fungi. J Nematol 35:271–277
Chen SY, Dickson DW, Mitchell DJ (1996b) Pathogenicity of fungi to eggs of Heterodera glycines. J Nematol 28(2):148–158
Chen SY, Dickson DW, Mitchell DJ (2000) Viability of Heterodera glycines exposed to fungal filtrates. J Nematol 32(2):190–197
Chen SY, Dickson DW, Whitty EB (1996a) Fungi associated with egg masses of Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica in a Florida tobacco field. Nematropica 26(2):153–157
Chet I, Inbar J (1997) Fungi. In: Anke T (ed) Fungal biotechnology. Chapman & Hall, Weinheim, pp 65–80
Clarkson JM, Charnley AK (1996) New insights into the mechanisms of fungal pathogenesis in insects. Trends Microbiol 4(5):197–202
Cohen E (1993) Chitin synthesis and degradation as targets for pesticide action. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 22:245–261
Cohen E (2001) Chitin synthesis and inhibition: a revisit. Pest Manag Sci 57:946–950
Costa MJN, Campos VP, Pfenning LH, Oliveira DF (2001) Toxicidad de filtrados fúngicos a Meloidogyne incognita. Fitopatol Bras 26(4):749–755 (in Portuguese)
Dackman C, Chet I, Nordbring-Hertz B (1989) Fungal parasitism of the cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii: infection and enzymatic activity. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 62:201–208
Dahiya N, Tewari R, Hoondal GS (2005a) Biotechnological aspects of chitinolytic enzymes: a review. Appl Microbiol Biot 25:1–10
Dahiya N, Tewari R, Tiwari RP, Hoondal GS (2005b) Chitinase production in solid-state fermentation by Enterobacter sp. NRG4 using statistical experimental design. Curr Microbiol 51:222–228
De Bach P (1964) Biological control of insects pests and weeds, 1st edn. Chapman and Hall, London. Fide Siddiqui and Mahmood (1996)
De ** R, Suh JW, Park RD, Kim YW, Krishnan HB, Kim KY (2005) Effect of chitin compost and broth on biological control of Meloidogyne incognita on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Nematology 7(1):125–132
Deshpande MV (1986) Enzymatic degradation of chitin & its biological applications. J Sci Ind Res 45:273–281
Dong LQ, Yang JK, Zhang KQ (2007) Cloning and phylogenetic analysis of the chitinase gene from the facultative pathogen Paecilomyces lilacinus. J Appl Microbiol 103:2476–2488
Dong LQ, Zhang KQ (2006) Microbial control of plant-parasitic nematodes: a five-party interaction. Plant Soil 288:31–45
Doucet ME, de Doucet MMA (1997) Nematodes and agriculture in continental Argentina. On overview. Fund Appl Nematol 20(6):521–539
Dunn MT, Sayre RM, Carrell A, Wergin WP (1982) Colonization of nematode eggs by Paecilomyces lilacinus (Thom) Samson as observed with scanning electron microscope. Scan Electron Micros 3:1351–1357
Fang W, Leng B, **ao Y, ** K, Ma J, Fan Y, Feng J, Yang X, Zhang Y, Pei Y (2005) Cloning of Beauveria bassiana chitinase gene Bbchit 1 and its application to improve fungal strain virulence. Appl Environ Microb 71:363–370
Felse PA, Panda T (2000) Production of microbial chitinases - A revisit. Bioprocess Eng 23:127–134
Flach J, Pilet PE, Jollès P (1992) What’s new in chitinase research? Experientia 48:701–716
Fukamizo T (2000) Chitinolytic enzymes: catalysis, substrate binding, and their application. Curr Protein Pept Sc 1:105–124
Gan Z, Yang J, Tao N, Liang L, Mi Q, Li J, Zhang KQ (2007) Cloning of the gene Lecanicillium psalliotae chitinase Lpchi1 and identification of its potential role in the biocontrol of root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 76:1309–1317
Gohel V, Singh A, Vimal M, Ashwini P, Chhatpar HS (2006) Bioprospecting and antifungal potential of chitinolytic microorganisms. Afr J Biotechnol 5(2):54–72
Gooday GW (1990) Physiology of microbial degradation of chitin and chitosan. Biodegradation 1:177–190
Gooday GW, Zhu W-Y, O’Donnell RW (1992) What are the roles of chitinases in the growing fungus? FEMS Microbiol Lett 100:387–392
Grim LH, Kelly S, Krull R, Hempel DC (2005) Morphology and productivity of filamentous fungi. Appl Microbiol Biot 69:375–384
Gunasekera TS, Holland RJ, Gillings MR, Briscoe DA, Neethling DC, Williams KL, Nevalainen KMH (2000) Phenotypic and genetic characterization of Paecilomyces lilacinus strains with biocontrol activity against root-knot nematodes. Can J Microbiol 46:775–783
Henrissat B (1999) Classification of chitinases modules. EXS 87(1):137–156
Herrera-Estrella A, Chet I (1999) Chitinases in biological control. EXS 87(1):171–184
Hidalgo-Diaz L, Kerry BR (2008) Integration of biological control with other methods of nematode management. In: Ciancio A, Mukerji KG (eds) Integrated Management and biocontrol of vegetable and grain crops nematodes. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 29–49
Hirsch PR, Atkins SD, Mauchline TH, Morton CO, Davies KG, Kerry BR (2001) Methods for studying the nematophagous fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium in the root environment. Plant Soil 232:21–30
Hoell IA, Klemsdal SS, Vaaje-Kolstad G, Horn SJ, Eijsink VGH (2005) Overexpression and characterization of a novel chitinase from Trichoderma atroviridae strain P1. Biochim Biophys Acta 1748:180–190
Holland RJ, Williams KL, Khan A (1999) Infection of Meloidogyne javanica by Paecilomyces lilacinus. Nematology 1(2):131–139
Howard MB, Ekborg NA, Weiner RM, Hutcheson SW (2003) Detection and characterization of chitinases and other chitin-modifying enzymes. J Ind Microbiol Biot 30:627–635
Huang X, Zhao N, Zhang K (2004) Extracellular enzymes serving as virulence factors in nematophagous fungi involved in infection of the host. Res Microbiol 155:811–816
Inglis PW, Rubia BC, Sarmento RBC, Gaviao CFC, Valadares-Inglis MC (2005) DNA fingerprinting of Paecilomyces strains of potential use for the biological control of pests. World J Microb Biot 21:1487–1492
Irving F, Kerry BR (1986) Variation between strains of the nematophagous fungus, Verticillium chlamydosporium Goddard. II. Factors affecting parasitism of cyst nematode eggs. Nematologica 32:474–485
Jansson H-B, Tunlid A, Nordbring-Hertz B (1997) Nematodes. In: Anke T (ed) Fungal biotechnology. Chapman & Hall, Weinheim, pp 38–50
Johansson JF, Paul LR, Finlay RD (2004) Microbial interactions in the mycorrhizosphere and their significance for sustainable agriculture. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 48:1–13
Jung C, Wyss U (1999) New approaches to control plant parasitic nematodes. Appl Microbiol Biot 51:439–446
Karlsson M, Stenlid J (2008) Comparative evolutionary histories of the fungal chitinase gene family reveal non-random size expansions and contractions due to adaptive natural selection. Evol Bioinf 4:47–60
Kerry BR (1990) An assessment of progress toward microbial control of plant-parasitic nematodes. J Nematol 22(4S):621–631
Kerry BR (2000) Rhizosphere interactions and the exploitation of microbial agents for the biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Annu Rev Phytopathol 38:423–441
Kerry BR, Hirsch P (2005) Exploitation of rhizosphere fungi for the biological control nematodes. Press Roth 40–45
Khan A, Williams K, Molloy MP, Nevalainen H (2003) Purification and characterization of a serine protease and chitinases from Paecilomyces lilacinus and detection of chitinase activity on 2D gels. Prot Expres Purif 32:210–220
Khan A, Williams KL, Nevalainen HKM (2004) Effects of Paecilomyces lilacinus protease and chitinase on the eggshell structures and hatching of Meloidogyne javanica juveniles. Biol Control 31:346–352
Khan A, Williams KL, Nevalainen HKM (2006) Control of plant-parasitic nematodes by Paecilomyces lilacinus and Monacrosporium lysipagum in pot trials. Biocontrol 51:643–658
Khan HU, Ahmad R, Ahmed W, Khan SM, Khan MA (2001) Evaluation of the combined effects of Paecilomyces lilacinus and Trichoderma harzianum against root-knot disease of tomato. J Biol Sci 1(3):139–142
Kok CJ, Papert A, Hok-A-Hin CH (2001) Microflora of Meloidogyne egg masses: species composition, population density and effect on the biocontrol agent Verticillium chlamydosporium (Goddard). Nematology 3(8):729–734
Krieger de Moraes C, Schrank A, Henning Vainstein M (2003) Regulation of extracellular chitinases and proteases in the entomopathogen and acaricide Metarhizium anisopliae. Curr Microbiol 46:205–210
Kubicek CP, Mach RL, Peterbauer CK, Lorito M (2001) Trichoderma: from genes to biocontrol. J Plant Pathol 83(2):11–23
Kucuk C, Kivanc M (2003) Isolation of Trichoderma spp. and determination of their antifungal, biochemical and physiological features. Turk J Biol 27:247–253
Kühn J (1877) Vorlaufiger Bericht uber die bisherigen Ergebnisse der seit dem jahre 1875 in Aftrage des Vereins fur Ruberzucher Insdustrie aus gegiihrten versuche zue Ermittelung der ursacho der Rubenmudiqueit des Boden und Zur Er Forschung der Natur de Nematoden. Z Ver Ruben Ind Dent Reich (Ohne Band) 452–457. Fide Siddiqui and Mahmood (1996)
Kunert J (1992) On the mechanism of penetration of ovicidal fungi through egg-shells of parasitic nematodes. Decomposition of chitinous and ascaroside layers. Folia Parasit 39:61–66
Kunert J, Zemek J, Augustín J, Kuniak E, Chalupová V (1985) Chitinolytic activity of ovicidal soil fungi. Biologia (Bratislava) 40(11):1157–1165
Larsen M (2000) Prospects for controlling animal parasitic nematodes by predacious micro fungi. Parasitology 120:121–131
Li D-C (2006) Review of fungal chitinases. Mycopathologia 161:345–360
Limón MC, Chacón MR, Mejías R, Delgado-Jarana J, Rincón AM, Codón AC, Benítez T (2004) Increased antifungal and chitinase specific activities of Trichoderma harzianum CECT 2413 by addition of a cellulose binding domain. Appl Microbiol Biot 64:675–685
Limón MC, Margolles-Clark E, Benítez T, Penttila M (2001) Addition of substrate-binding domains increases substrate-binding capacity and specific activity of a chitinase from Trichoderma harzianum. FEMS Microbiol Lett 198:57–63
Liu B-L, Kao P-M, Tzeng Y-M, Feng K-C (2003) Production of chitinase from Verticillium lecanii F091 using submerged fermentation. Enzyme Microb Tech 33:410–415
López-Llorca LV (1990) Purification and properties of extracellular proteases produced by the nematophagous fungus Verticillium suchlasporium. Can J Microbiol 36:530–537
López-Llorca LV (1992) Los hongos parásitos de invertebrados y su potencial como agentes de control biológico. Rev Iberoam Micol 9:17–22 (in Spanish)
López-Llorca LV, Maciá-Vicente JG, Jansson H-B (2008) Mode of action and interactions of nematophagous fungi. In: Ciancio A, Mukerji KG (eds) Integrated Management and biocontrol of vegetable and grain crops nematodes. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 51–76
López-Llorca LV, Olivares-Bernabeu C, Salinas J, Jansson H-B, Kolattukudy PE (2002) Pre-penetration events in fungal parasitism of nematode eggs. Mycol Res 106(4):499–506
Lýsek H, Krajci D (1987) Penetration of ovicidal fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium through the Ascaris lumbricoides egg-shells. Folia Parasitol 34:57–60
Lýsek H, Malinský J, Janisch R (1985) Ultraestructure of eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides Linnaeus, 1758 I. Egg-shells. Folia Parasitol 32:381–384
Lýsek H, Nigenda G (1989) Capacidad de autodeshelmintizacion del suelo. Salud Pública Méx 31(6):763–771 (in Spanish)
Lýsek H, Sterba J (1991) Colonization of Ascaris lumbricoides eggs by the fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium Goddard. Folia Parasitol 38:255–259
Malsam O, Kilian M, Hain R, Berg D (1997) Fungal insecticides. In: Anke T (ed) Fungal biotechnology. Chapman & Hall, Weinheim, pp 27–37
Mansfield LS, Gamble HR, Fetterer RH (1992) Characterization of the eggshell of Haemonchus contortus. I. Structural components. Comp Biochem Physiol 103B(3):681–686
Markovich NA, Kononova GL (2003) Lytic enzymes of Trichoderma and their role in plant defense from fungal diseases: areview. Appl Biochem Microb 39(4):341–351
Matsumoto Y, Saucedo-Castañeda G, Revah S, Shirai K (2004) Production of β-N-acetylhexosaminidase of Verticillium lecanii by solid state and submerged fermentations utilizing shrimp waste silage as substrate and inducer. Process Biochem 39:665–671
Mauchline TH, Kerry BR, Hirsch PR (2002) Quantification in soil and the rhizosphere of the nematophagous fungus Verticillim chlamydosporium by competitive PCR and comparison with selective plating. Appl Environ Microb 68:1846–1853
Mc Sorley R (2003) Adaptation of nematodes to environmental extremes. Florida Entomol 86:138–142
Mercer CF, Greenwood DR, Grant JL (1992) Effect of plant and microbial chitinases on the eggs and juveniles of Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood. Nematologica 8:227–236
Merzendorfer H, Zimoch L (2003) Chitin metabolism in insects: structure, function and regulation of chitin synthases and chitinases. J Exp Biol 206:4393–4412
Meyer SLF, Huettel RN, Liu XZ, Humber RA, Juba J, Nitao JK (2004) Activity of fungal culture filtrates against soybean cyst nematode and root-knot nematode egg hatch and juvenile motility. Nematology 6(1):23–32
Meyer SLF, Massoud SI, Chitwood DJ, Roberts DP (2000) Evaluation of Trichoderma virens and Burkholderia cepacia for antagonistic activity against root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Nematology 2(8):871–879
Monfort E, López Llorca LV, Jansson H-B, Salinas J, Park JO, Sivasithamparan K (2005) Colonization of seminal roots of wheat and barley by egg-parasitic nematophagous fungi and their effects on Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici and development of root-rot. Soil Biol Biochem 37:1229–1235
Monfort E, López-Llorca LV, Jansson H-B, Salinas J (2006) In vitro soil receptivity assays to egg-parasitic nematophagous fungi. Mycol Progress 5:18–23
Morgan-Jones G, Rodriguez-Kabana R (1985) Phytonematode pathology: fungal modes of action. Nematropica 15(1):107–114
Morgan-Jones G, Rodriguez-Kabana R (1987) Fungal biocontrol for the management of nematodes. In: Veech JA, Dickson DW (eds) Vistas on Nematology. Society of Nematologists, Hyattsville, Maryland, pp 94–99
Morton CO, Hirsch PR, Kerry BR (2004) Infection of plant-parasitic nematodes by nematophagous fungi - a review of the application of molecular biology to understand infection processes and to improve biological control. Nematology 6(2):161–170
Mukhtar T, Pervaz I (2003) In vitro evaluation of ovicidal and larvicidal effects of culture filtrate of Verticillium chlamydosporium against Meloidogyne javanica. Int J Agric Biol 4:576–579
Nampoothiri KM, Baiju TV, Sandhya C, Sabu A, Szakacs G, Pandey A (2004) Process optimization for antifungal chitinase production by Trichoderma harzianum. Process Biochem 39:1583–1590
Nawani NN, Kapadnis BP (2005) Optimization of chitinase production using statistics based experimental designs. Process Biochem 40:651–660
Nedwin GE, Schaefer T, Falholt P (2005) Enzyme discovery. Screening, cloning, evolving. Chem Eng Progress 101(10):48–55
Nordbring-Hertz B (1988) Nematophagous fungi: strategies for nematode exploitation and for survival. Microbiol Sci 5(4):108–116
Nordbring-Hertz B, Jansson H-B, Tunlid A (2000) Nematophagous fungi. In: Encyclopedia life sciences. Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp 1–10
Olivares-Bernabeu CM, López-Llorca LV (2002) Fungal egg-parasites of plant-parasitic nematodes from Spanish soils. Rev Iberoam Micol 19:104–110
Orion D, Kritzman G, Meyer SLF, Erbe EF, Chitwood DJ (2001) A role of the gelatinous matrix in the resistance of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) egg to microorganisms. J Nematol 33(4):203–207
Orion D, Wergin WP, Chitwood DJ, Erbe EF (1994) Low-temperature scanning electron microscope observations of the Meloidogyne incognita egg mass: the gelatinous matrix and embryo development. J Nematol 26(4):402–411
Pandey A, Soccol CR, Mitchell D (2000) New developments in solid state fermentation. I. Bioprocesses development and products. Process Biochem 35:1153–1169
Park JO, Hargreaves JR, McConville EJ, Stirling GR, Ghisalberti EL, Sivasithamparam K (2004) Production of leucinostatins and nematicidal activity of Australian isolates of Paecilomyces lilacinus (Thom) Samson. Lett Appl Microbiol 38:271–276
Patidar P, Agrawal D, Banerjee T, Patil S (2005) Optimization of process parameters for chitinase production by soil isolates of Penicillium chrysogenum under solid substrate fermentation. Process Biochem 40:2962–2967
Patil RS, Ghormade V, Deshpande MV (2000) Chitinolytic enzymes: an exploration. Enzyme Microb Tech 26:473–483
Pereira JL, Noronha EF, Miller RNG, Franco OL (2007) Novel insights in the use of hydrolytic enzymes secreted by fungi with biotechnological potential. Lett Appl Microbiol 44:573–581
Peter MG (2002) Chitin and chitosan in fungi. In: Steinbüchel A (ed) Biopolymers. Vol 6: Polysaccharides II. Wiley, Weinheim, pp 123–157
Punja ZK, Utkhede RS (2003) Using fungi and yeasts to manage vegetable crop diseases. Trends Biotechnol 21(9):400–407
Punt PJ, van Biezen N, Conesa A, Albers A, Mangnus J, van den Hondel C (2002) Filamentous fungi as cell factories for heterologous protein production. Trends Biotechnol 20(5):200–206
Pyrowolakis A, Westphal A, Sikora RA, Becker JO (2002) Identification of root-knot nematode suppressive soils. Appl Soil Ecol 19:51–56
Rast DM, Baumgartner D, Mayer C, Hollenstein GO (2003) Cell wall-associated enzymes in fungi. Phytochemistry 64:339–366
Ravi Kumar MNV (2000) A review of chitin and chitosan applications. React Funct Polym 46:1–27
Rey M, Delgado-Jarana J, Rincón AM, Limón MC, Benítez T (2000) Mejora de cepas de Trichoderma para su empleo como biofungicidas. Rev Iberoam Micol 17:31–36 (in Spanish)
Robertus JD, Monzingo AF (1999) The structure and action of chitinases. EXS 87(1):125–135
Rubio MB, Hermosa MR, Keck E, Monte E (2005) Specific PCR assays for the detection and quantification of DNA from the biocontrol strain Trichoderma harzianum 2413 in soil. Microb Ecol 49:25–33
Rumbos CI, Kiewnick S (2006) Effect of plant species on persistence of Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 in soil and on root colonization by the fungus. Plant Soil 283:25–31
Sahai AS, Manocha MS (1993) Chitinases of fungi and plants: their involvement in morphogenesis and host-parasite interaction. FEMS Microbiol Rev 11:317–338
Schenck S (2004) Control of nematodes in tomato with Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251. Vegetable Report (Hawaii Agric. Res. Center) 5, 1–5
Schickler H, Haran S, Oppenheim A, Chet I (1998) Induction of the Trichoderma harzianum chitinolytic system is triggered by the chitin monomer, N-acetylglucosamine. Mycol Res 102:1224–1226
Segers R, Butt TM, Kerry BR, Beckett A, Peberdy JF (1996) The role of the proteinase VCP1 produced by the nematophagous Verticillium chlamydosporium in the infection process of nematode eggs. Mycol Res 100(4):421–428
Segers R, Butt TM, Kerry BR, Peberdy JF (1994) The nematophagous fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium produces a chymoelastase-like protease which hydrolysis host nematode proteins in situ. Microbiology 140:2715–2723
Seidl V (2008) Chitinases of filamentous fungi: a large group of diverse proteins with multiple physiological functions. Fungal Biol Rev 22:36–42
Seidl V, Huemer B, Seiboth B, Kubicek CP (2005) A complete survey of Trichoderma chitinases reveals three distinct subgroups of family 18 chitinases. FEBS J 272:5923–5939
Shaikh SA, Deshpande MV (1993) Chitinolytic enzymes: their contribution to basic and applied research. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 9:468–475
Sharon E, Bar-Eyal M, Chet I, Herrera-Estrella A, Kleifeld O, Spiegel Y (2001) Biological control of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica by Trichoderma harzianum. Biol Control 91(7):687–693
Shubakov AA, Kucheryavykh PS (2004) Chitinolytic activity of filamentous fungi. Appl Biochem Microb 40(5):445–447
Siddiqui IA, Mahmood I (1996) Biological control of plant parasitic nematodes by fungi: a review. Biores Technol 58:229–239
Siddiqui IA, Qureshi SA, Sultana V, Ehteshamul-Haque S, Ghaffar A (2000) Biological control of root rot-root knot disease complex of tomato. Plant Soil 227:163–169
Silva GH, Oliveira DF, Campos VP (2002) Purificação de metabólitos fúngicos com efeitos tóxicos sobre Meloidogyne incognita. Fitopatol Bras 27(6):594–598 (in Portuguese)
Spindler K-D, Splinder-Barth M, Londershausen M (1990) Chitin metabolism: a target for drugs against parasites. Parasitol Res 76:283–288
Steyaert JM, Stewart A, Jaspers MV, Carpenter M, Ridgway H (2004) Co-expression of two genes, a chitinase (chit42) and proteinase (prb1), implicated in mycoparasitism by Trichoderma hamatum. Mycologia 96(6):1245–1252
Stirling GR, Licastro KA, West LM, Smith LJ (1998) Development of commercially acceptable formulations of the nematophagous fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium. Biol Control 11:217–223
Sun MH, Gao L, Shi YX, Li BJ, Liu XZ (2006) Fungi and actinomycetes associated with Meloidogyne spp. eggs and females in China and their biocontrol potential. J Invertebr Pathol 93:22–28
Synowiecki J, Al-Khateeb NA (2003) Production, properties, and some new applications of chitin and its derivatives. Crit Rev Food Sci 43(2):145–171
Taib M, Pinney JW, Westhead DR, McDowall KJ, Adams DJ (2005) Differential expression and extent of fungal/plant and fungal/bacterial chitinases of Aspergillus fumigatus. Arch Microbiol 184:78–81
Thamsborg SM, Roepstorff A, Larsen M (1999) Integrated and biological control of parasites in organic and conventional production systems. Vet Parasitol 84:169–186
Tharanathan RN, Kittur FS (2003) Chitin - The undisputed biomolecule of great potential. Crit Rev Food Sci 43(1):61–87
Tikhonov VE, López-Llorca LV, Salinas J, Jansson H-B (2002) Purification and characterization of chitinases from the nematophagous fungi Verticillium chlamydosporium and V. suchlasporium. Fungal Genet Biol 35:67–78
Verdejo-Lucas S, Ornat C, Sorribas FJ, Stchiegel A (2002) Species of root-knot nematodes and fungal egg parasites recovered from vegetables in Almeria and Barcelona, Spain. J Nematol 34(4):405–408
Veronico P, Gray LJ, Jones JT, Bazzicalupo P, Arbucci S, Cortese MR, Di Vito M, De Giorgi C (2001) Nematode chitin synthases: gene structure, expression and function in Caenorhabditis elegans and the plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne artiellia. Mol Genet Genomics 266:28–34
Westphal A, Becker JO (2001) Components of soil suppressiveness against Heterodera schachtii. Soil Biol Biochem 33:9–16
Wharton D (1980) Nematode egg-shells. Parasitology 81:447–463
Wilson CL (1997) Biological control and plant diseases - a new paradigm. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 19:158–159
Yang J, Tian B, Liang L, Zhang K-Q (2007) Extracellular enzymes and the pathogenesis of nematophagous fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 75:21–31
Zareen A, Siddiqui IA, Aleem F, Zaki MJ, Shaukat SS (2001) Observation on the nematicidal effect of Fusarium solani on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica. J Plant Pathol 83(3):207–214
Zhu ML, Mo MH, **a ZY, Li YH, Yang SJ, Li TF, Zhang KQ (2006) Detection of two fungal biocontrol agents against root-knot nematodes by RAPD markers. Mycopathologia 161:307–316
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gortari, M.C., Hours, R.A. Fungal chitinases and their biological role in the antagonism onto nematode eggs. A review. Mycol Progress 7, 221–238 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-008-0571-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-008-0571-3