Abstract
Teaching systematic phonics effectively to beginning readers requires specialized knowledge and training which many primary grade teachers lack. The current study examined effects of a year-long mentoring program to improve teachers’ knowledge and effectiveness in teaching phonics and the extent that it improved students’ achievement in reading and spelling. Teachers in urban, lower SES schools completed a 45 h course followed by 90 h of in-school training. Mentors (N = 29) worked with kindergarten, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grade teachers (N = 69) twice a week for 30 weeks during the year. Each visit included a 45 min prep period plus 45 min of modeling and feedback in the classroom. Mentors taught teachers how to provide systematic phonics instruction to their students (N = 1,336). Monthly ratings by mentors revealed that teachers improved their phonics teaching skills with many reaching the highest ratings by May. Teachers who were non-native speakers of English took a bit longer to learn the English sound system for letters, mainly because they lacked sufficient knowledge of English sounds and had to learn them. Given the increasing diversity of the teacher work force, future research is needed to study this difficulty, its solution, and impact on students. Teachers’ agreement with principles of phonics instruction remained strong or increased from fall to spring. Students’ reading and spelling skills showed large gains during the year and far exceeded effect sizes from comparable data sources. Students met grade-level expectations at the end of kindergarten and first grade but fell short in second and third grades. General education students outperformed bilingual/ELL and special needs students although all subgroups made large gains. Findings reveal the effectiveness of an intensive mentoring model of professional development applied to a subject that is difficult to teach and to a student population known for lower reading achievement. Findings point to the need for better pre-service teacher preparation coupled with appropriate curricula and PD from districts in order to improve students’ reading achievement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the Commission on reading. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.
Babayigit, S. (2015). The relations between word reading, oral language, and reading comprehension in children who speak English as a first (L1) and second language (L2): A multigroup structural analysis. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 28, 527–544.
Binks-Cantrell, E., Washburn, E., Joshi, R. M., & Hougen, M. (2012). Peter effect in the preparation of reading teachers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(6), 526–536.
Bos, C., Mather, N., Dickson, S., Podhajski, B., & Chard, D. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice educators about early reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 51, 97–120.
Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Indications from post-NRP research. In S. Brady, D. Braze, & C. Fowler (Eds.), Explaining individual differences in reading: Theory and evidence (pp. 69–96). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Brady, S., Gillis, M., Smith, T., Lavalette, M., Liss-Bronstein, L., Lowe, E., et al. (2009). First grade teachers’ knowledge of phonological awareness and code concepts: Examining gains from an intensive form of professional development and corresponding teacher attitudes. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 425–455.
Brady, S., & Moats, L. (1997). Informed instruction for reading success: Foundations for teacher preparation. A position paper of the International Dyslexia Association. Baltimore, MD: International Dyslexia Association.
Carlisle, J., & Berebitsky, D. (2011). Literacy mentoring as a component of professional development. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 773–800.
Carlisle, J., Correnti, R., Phelps, G., & Zeng, J. (2009). Exploration of the contribution of teachers’ knowledge about reading to their students’ improvement in reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 457–486.
Carlisle, J. F., Kelcey, B., Rowan, B., & Phelps, J. (2011). Teachers’ knowledge about early reading: Effect on students’ gains in achievement. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4(4), 289–321.
Carreker, S., Joshi, M., & Boulware-Gooden, R. (2010). Spelling-related teacher knowledge: The impact of professional development on identifying appropriate instructional activities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33, 148–158.
Chall, J. S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chatterji, M. (2006). Reading achievement gaps, correlates, and moderators of early reading achievement: Evidence from the early childhood longitudinal study (ECLS) kindergarten to first grade sample. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 489–507.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Connor, C. (2011). Child characteristics—Instruction interactions: Implications for students’ literacy skills development in the early grades. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Volume 3) (pp. 256–275). New York, NY: Guilford.
Cunningham, A., Perry, K., Stanovich, K., & Stanovich, P. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(1), 139–167.
Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. Palo Alto, CA: School Redesign Network at Stanford University.
Desimone, L. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199.
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 135–154). Oxford: Blackwell.
Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic map** in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21.
Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S., Stahl, S., & Willows, D. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71, 393–447.
Elish-Piper, L., & L’Allier, S. (2011). Examining the relationship between literacy mentoring and student reading gains in Grades K-3. The Elementary School Journal, 112(1), 83–106.
Garet, M., Cronen, S., Eaton, M., Kurki, A., Ludwig, M., Jones, W., et al. (2008). The impact of two professional development interventions on early reading instruction and achievement. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Evaluation and Regional Assistance.
Gillingham, A., & Stillman, B. W. (1997). The Gillingham manual: Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship (8th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.
Joshi, R. M., Dahlgren, M., & Boulware-Gooden, R. (2002). Teaching reading in an inner city school through a multisensory teaching approach. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 229–242.
Juel, C., & Minden-Culp, C. (2000). Learning to read words: Linguistic units and instructional strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(4), 458–492.
Litcher, J. H., & Roberge, L. P. (1979). First grade intervention for reading achievement of high risk children. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 24, 238–244.
MacGinitie, W., MacGinitie, R., Maria, K., & Dreyer, L. (2000). Gates-MacGinitie reading tests (4th ed.). Itastca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Maria, K., & Hughes, K. (2008). Gates-MacGinitie reading tests: Technical report supplement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
Mather, N., Bos, C., & Babur, N. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers about early literacy instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 472–482.
McCutchen, D., Abbott, R. D., Green, L. B., Beretvas, S. N., Cox, S., Potter, N. S., et al. (2002a). Beginning literacy: Links among teacher knowledge, teacher practice, and student learning. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(1), 69–96.
McCutchen, D., Green, L., Abbott, R., & Sanders, E. (2009). Further evidence for teacher knowledge: Supporting struggling readers in grades three through five. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 401–423.
McCutchen, D., Harry, D., Cunningham, A., Cox, S., Sidman, S., & Covill, A. (2002b). Reading teachers’ knowledge of children’s literature and English phonology. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 207–228.
Moats, L. (1994). The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 81–102.
Moats, L. (2003). Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS). Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Moats, L. (2009). Knowledge foundations for teaching reading and spelling. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 379–399.
Moats, L. (2014). What teachers don’t know and why they aren’t learning it: Addressing the need for content and pedagogy in teacher education. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties. doi:10.1080/19404158.2014.941093.
Morrison, J. (1951). Morrison-McCall spelling scale. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Report of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the National Instititue for Literacy.
Orton, S. T. (1937). Reading, writing and speech problems in children. New York, NY: Norton.
Piasta, S., Connor, D., Fishman, B., & Morrison, F. (2009). Teachers’ knowledge of literacy concepts, classroom practices, and student reading growth. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(3), 224–248.
Rack, J., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Wightman, J. (1994). The role of phonology in young children’s learning of sight words: The direct-map** hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 57, 42–71.
Rayner, K., Foorman, B., Perfetti, C., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2, 31–74.
Ritchey, K. D., & Goeke, J. L. (2006). Orton–Gillingham and Orton–Gillingham-based reading instruction: A review of the literature. The Journal of Special Education, 40(3), 171–183.
Rose, S., & Nelson, G. (2012). Sunday is for the sun, Monday is for the moon: Teaching reading, one teacher and thirty children at a time. New York, NY: Reading Reform Foundation.
Share, D. L. (2008). Orthographic learning, phonology and the self-teaching hypothesis. In R. Kail (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (pp. 31–82). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York, NY: Knopf.
Silverman, R. D., Proctor, C., Harring, J., Hartranft, A., Doyle, B., & Zelinke, S. (2015). Language skills and reading comprehension in English monolingual and Spanish-English bilingual children in grades 2–5. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 28, 1381–1405.
Skibbe, L., Grimm, K., Bowles, R., & Morrison, F. (2012). Literacy growth in the academic year versus summer from preschool through second grade: Differential effects of schooling across four skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(2), 141–165.
Slavin, R., Lake, C., Chambers, B., Cheung, A., & Davis, S. (2009). Effective reading programs for the elementary grades: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 79, 1391–1466.
Snow, C., Burns, M., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Spalding, R. B. (2003). The writing road to reading. New York, NY: Harper Collins.
Spear-Swerling, L., & Brucker, P. (2004). Preparing novice teachers to develop basic reading and spelling skills in children. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(2), 332–364.
Stanovich, K. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York, NY: Guilford.
Stephens, D., Morgan, D., DeFord, D., Donnelly, A., Hamel, E., Keith, K., et al. (2011). The impact of literacy coaches on teachers’ beliefs and practices. Journal of Literacy Research, 43(3), 215–249.
Stoner, R. (1991). Teaching at-risk students to read using specialized techniques in the regular classroom. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3, 19–30.
Tunmer, W. E., & Nicholson, T. (2011). The development and teaching of word recognition skill. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Volume IV) (pp. 405–431). New York, NY: Routledge.
Washburn, E., Joshi, R. M., & Binks-Cantrell, E. (2011). Teacher knowledge of basic language concepts and dyslexia. Dyslexia. doi:10.1002/dys.426.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a grant from the Reading Reform Foundation (RRF) to the Center for Advanced Study in Education (CASE) at the CUNY Graduate Center. The research was conducted independently of RRF. Contents of the report do not necessarily reflect the views of RRF. Neither author has ever been employed by or affiliated with RRF. There was no conflict of interest. The researchers were not in direct contact with mentors, teachers, or students. All data were collected by RRF as part of the program provided to schools and then were de-identified before being delivered to the researchers. Gratitude is expressed to the RRF staff for valuing research, and to the CUNY graduate student, Turkan Ocal, who assisted with data entry.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
See Table 6.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ehri, L.C., Flugman, B. Mentoring teachers in systematic phonics instruction: effectiveness of an intensive year-long program for kindergarten through 3rd grade teachers and their students. Read Writ 31, 425–456 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9792-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9792-7