Abstract
Well-being is defined in a range of different ways, most notably in the psychological and philosophical literatures. A dimensional scheme is presented that locates the variety of approaches to well-being according to how much they define it by a person’s positive subjective state as opposed to requiring the presence of a range of other, more objective life goods (e.g., achievement, relationships, etc.). Adopting a dimensional model allows variations from the traditional subjectivist and objectivist positions, including a variety of mixed subjective and objective (sobjective) positions. Sobjectivist positions vary in the relative weighting of feeling states and more objective elements, as well as how these two different elements are seen as relating to each other. The dimensional model also has the important effect of enabling psychological and philosophical thinking about well-being to be integrated despite their differences in emphases and concerns. A number of different ways that these two aspects can be combined are outlined, including a two-tier model with happiness as a final good and other goods having value to the extent that they lead to happiness.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Happiness is a term that is used in widely different ways but will be used here in its most common meaning of a subjectively experienced feeling state of happiness.
(note that Finnis does acknowledge that if any of the goods do give pleasure then this is an important part of the reality of their being experienced (Finnis 1980, p. 96).
Sometimes desire theories are called desire satisfaction theories which can be misleading because there is no requirement of the person experiencing a subjective state of satisfaction upon the desired outcome coming about: it is enough that it has come about.
I am grateful to an anonymous reviewer for this example.
Note that Ryff, rather confusingly, uses the term “Psychological Well-Being” to refer specifically to the six dimensions outlined. This should not be confused with the more generic use of the term “psychological well-being” as distinct from, for example, physical well-being.
References
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
Annas, J. (2004). Happiness as achievement. Daedalus, 133, 44–51.
Aristotle (2000/C4 BCE). Nicomachean ethics, ed. and introd. R. Crisp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Arneson, R. J. (1999). Human flourishing versus desire satisfaction. Social Philosophy and Policy, 16, 113–142.
Bentham, J. (1988/1789) An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Broadie, S. & Rowe, C. (Eds.). (2002). Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics: Translation and commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brülde, B. (2007). Happiness theories of the good life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8, 15–49.
Crisp, R. (2006). Reasons and the good. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Crisp, R. (2013). Well-being. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2013 Edition), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2013/entries/well-being. Retrieved July, 2014.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1998). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.
Delle Fave, A., & Bassi, M. (2009). The contribution of diversity to happiness research. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 205–207.
Delle Fave, A., Brdar, I., Freire, T., Vella-Broderick, D., & Wissing, M. P. (2011). The eudaimonic and hedonic components of happiness: Qualitative and quantitative findings. Social Indicators Research, 100, 185–207.
Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness: Unlocking the mysteries of psychological wealth. Oxford: Blackwell.
Feldman, F. (2012). What is this thing called happiness? Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Finnis, J. (1980). Natural law and natural rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Griffin, J. (1996). Well-being: Its meaning, measurement and moral importance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hawkins, J. S. (2010). The subjective intuition. Philosophical Studies, 148, 61–68.
Haybron, D. M. (2008). The pursuit of unhappiness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hayes, S. C., Strohsal, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2011). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford.
Hurka, T. (1993). Perfectionism. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hurka, T. (2011). The best things in life: A guide to what really matters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwartz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 219–233.
Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete state model of mental health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 539–548.
Keyes, C. L. M., & Annas, J. (2009). Feeling good and functioning well: Distinctive concepts in ancient philosophy and contemporary science. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 197–201.
Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, C., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 1007–1022.
Kraut, R. (2007). What is good and why: The ethics of well-being. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Mill, J. S. (1979/1861). Utilitarianism, Ed. M. Warnock. Glasgow: Collins.
Nozick, R. (1974). Anarchy, state, and utopia. New York: Basic Books.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 137–152.
Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction: The full life versus the empty life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 25–41.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Raibley, J. R. (2012). Happiness is not well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 1105–1129.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Ryan, R. M., Huta, V., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139–170.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.
Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 350–362.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York: Free Press.
Sen, A. (1987). On ethics and economics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sidgwick, H. (1907/1981). The methods of ethics, 7th ed. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing Company.
Sumner, L. W. (1996). Welfare, happiness and ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, T. (2012). Knowing what is good for you: A theory of prudential value and well-being. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tiberius, V. (2006). Well-being: Psychological research for philosophers. Philosophy Compass, 1(5), 493–505.
Tiberius, V. (2013). Recipes for a good life: Eudaimonism and the contribution of philosophy. In A. S. Waterman (Ed.), The best within us (pp. 19–38). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Tiberius, V., & Hall, A. (2010). Normative theory and psychological research: Hedonism, eudaimonism and why it matters. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 212–225.
United Nations (2010). Human Development Index and its components. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1_reprint.pdf (accessed, July, 2011).
Vella-Brodrick, D., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2009). Three ways to be happy: Pleasure, engagement, and meaning—Findings from Australian and US samples. Social Indicators Research, 90, 165–179.
Waterman, A. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: A eudaimonist’s perspective’. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 234–252.
Waterman, A. S. (2013). Considering the nature of a life well-lived: Intersections of positive psychology and eudaemonist philosophy. In A. S. Waterman (Ed.), The best within us (pp. 3–18). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Wolf, S. (2010). Meaning in life and why it matters. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Woodard, C. (2013). Classifying theories of welfare. Philosophical Studies, 165, 787–803.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Roger Crisp, Steve Holland, Mick Power and two anonymous reviewers for comments on earlier drafts of this paper and to Roger Crisp for helpful discussions of the material.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
MacLeod, A.K. Well-Being: Objectivism, Subjectivism or Sobjectivism?. J Happiness Stud 16, 1073–1089 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9561-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9561-0