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Preventing Wildlife Crimes: Solutions That Can Overcome the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’

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Abstract

The 'tragedy of the commons' dilemma occurs when individuals working independently of one another, will overuse a common-property resource for short-term benefits while decimating the resource for long-term use (Hardin 1968). This is often found in the field of wildlife crimes where species become overexploited to increase short-term profits while endangering and eliminating a natural resource for future users. Wildlife crimes suffering from the ‘tragedy’ need to be prevented in order for species to avoid extinction while also conserving a natural resource that monetarily benefits numerous people and their respective communities. Current approaches to the illegal wildlife trade include implementing trade bans or regulatory schemes at the national and international level, yet their effectiveness of reducing the trade is unknown. Perhaps, a better approach in reducing the illegal wildlife trade is a combination of making it more difficult to poach (i.e. situational crime prevention) and incentivizing locals to abstain from poaching. This paper will first review the literature on wildlife crimes and then use a case study approach that will examine the literature on the illegal parrot trade, the market for wildlife skins, and over-fishing. Through these case studies, a comprehensive review of the problem will be detailed as well as innovative conservation solutions that show promise in reducing the poaching and exploitation of species. Amongst these solutions will be the use of situational crime prevention that has shown immediate reductions in crime when tailored towards highly-targeted areas and crimes.

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Notes

  1. For instance, "maintenance of common agricultural land, irrigation systems, and lake and shore fisheries” have all been shown to not result in a tragedy of the commons (Ostrom 1999, cited in Van Vugt 2009: 170).

  2. Namely, the Atlantic Cod, Atlantic Salmon, Patagonian Toothfish, Bluefin Tuna, Yellowfin Tuna, Chilean Sea Bass, Orange Roughy and several Sturgeon species are all examples of overfished species in need of more protection.

  3. Regulatory schemes implement catch-quotas for species, often banning trade in threatened species and allowing trade for more abundant species.

  4. Range states refer to regions or countries where species are commonly found.

  5. This term seems appropriate for this field of study (Gibbs et al. 2010).

  6. Cohen and Felson (1979) describe three main elements that interact in time and space in order for a criminal offense to occur: the presence of a likely offender and a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian. It should be noted that the role of guardianship – in the context of those who ‘discourage crime’ – has been extended to include handlers and managers (see Felson 1995).

  7. Although, see Kennedy (2009) for an interesting discussion on the re-examination of deterrence.

  8. Includes ordinary police officers, environmental police, custom agents and coast guard.

  9. However, like humans, animals may be restricted by physical barriers.

  10. For example, prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Caspian Sea was governed by two states: Iran and the Soviet Union. The subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in the Caspian Sea being governed by five independent states (Azerbaijan, Kazaakhstan, Turkmenistan, Russian Federation and Iran) rather than two. Each state, with their own boundaries within the Caspian Sea, differs in administrative and legal definitions as well as resource capacity in the monitoring and surveillance of the sturgeon species that inhabit the Caspian. Moreover, conservation initiatives (i.e. fish hatcheries), regulatory policies (i.e. catch quotas) and measurements in relation to sturgeon species within the Caspian Sea vary from state to state (De Meulenaer and Raymakers 1996; Vaisman 1997; Speer et al. 2000; Graham and Murphy 2007). Despite the socio-political environment, the sturgeon species within the Caspian Sea were directly not affected insomuch that their typical activities did not change (i.e. reproductive breeding grounds and feeding groups; movement and passage through the Caspian Sea, etc); however, the sturgeon species were indirectly affected by such changes due to the direct effects on the states surrounding the Caspian Sea. Limited resources and lax and corrupt formal enforcement has facilitated an environment where rampant poaching has festered (De Meulenaer and Raymakers 1996; Vaisman 1997; Speer et al. 2000; Shadrina 2007).

  11. This is not to say that all individuals are capable of committing all the same types of offenses since individuals may be restricted or limited in their abilities or drives to commit a specific offense (i.e. a graffiti writer may or may not have the necessary tools or abilities to steal a vehicle nor will they necessarily want to). Rather, SCP recognizes that if an opportunity to offend is present, someone, at any given time, will have the abilities and the inclination to take advantage of such opportunities unless such situations are remedied or alleviated.

  12. Itinerant fences are middlemen who go from town to town to acquire poached species in order to fence it off to an illegal market or higher middleman (Pires and Clarke In Press b).

  13. Accessibility was measured as the proportion of parrot species ranges that inhabited non-rainforest areas as well the average human population within each species' range.

  14. Breeding periods for parrot species generally last 2-3 months the same time every year.

  15. Specifically the Uncia uncia and the Panthera uncia.

  16. Species that are in Appendix I of the CITES agreement cannot be legally poached or traded, unless they are permitted to be bred in captivity.

  17. Hussain (2003) found that poachers used leg snares during the winter (when the snow leopards would come near the villages) to trap the animal and kill it in a way that did not damage the pelt. The primary goal of these individuals was to secure the pelt rather than protect their livestock.

  18. For current information, visit: http://www.snowleopard.org/

  19. Hemis National Park is home to 16 small human settlements (Theile 2003).

  20. Specifically, the White-lipped Peccary (Tayassu pecari) and the Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu) (Roe 2008; Bodmer et al. 2004a, b).

  21. The main reason is the consumption and sale of peccary meat in local domestic markets (Bodmer et al. 2004a, b).

  22. Tanneries are responsible for “rehumidifying, degreasing, and chrome tanning” the skins (Bodmer et al. 2004a, b: 203).

  23. As described by Baird (2006: 9), IUU fishing encompasses the some or all of the following: (1) fishing within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of a state without the authorization of the coastal state; (2) fishing within a Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) area of application by a fishing vessel associated with a contracting party; (3) fishing in direct breach of national or international requirements or laws; (4) fishing within a RFMO area of application by a fishing vessel that is not associated with a state or associated to a non-contracting party which is in direct conflict with conservation and management measures of the relevant RFMO; (5) fishing on the high seas without flag state authorization and; (6) over-exploitation due to unreported or misreported catches.

  24. Although see Davies et al. 2009 for an attempt to estimate such figures.

  25. Defined as the 200 nautical miles extended from a state’s coastline considered to be within its jurisdiction.

  26. See Mathews (2003) for a discussion on possible conceptual differences between small-scale, artisanal and traditional forms of fishing.

  27. The concept of Sustainable Livelihoods attempts to go beyond traditional definitions of poverty and the means to address the issue. It focuses on three main aspects: (1) explicit focus on the abilities of the impoverished to take advantage of economic opportunities; (2) recognize that poverty is not just financial but also includes other factors (i.e. illiteracy, lack of social services, etc) and; (3) acknowledge the inclusion of the impoverished communities in the development of policies and programmes (FAO 2010; Krantz 2001).

  28. These shares are officially called Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQ).

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Dr. Ronald Clarke of Rutgers University – Newark for his guidance and critical feedback. Also, they are indebted to Phyllis Schultze of the Don M. Gottfredson library for her tireless efforts in finding resources, many of which were beyond criminological sources. The authors are responsible for any errors.

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    Stephen F. Pires & William D. Moreto

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Pires, S.F., Moreto, W.D. Preventing Wildlife Crimes: Solutions That Can Overcome the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’. Eur J Crim Policy Res 17, 101–123 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3

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