Abstract
Scientists, managers, and policy-makers need functional and effective metrics to improve our understanding and management of biological invasions. Such metrics would help to assess progress towards management goals, increase compatibility across administrative borders, and facilitate comparisons between invasions. Here we outline key characteristics of tree invasions (status, abundance, spatial extent, and impact), discuss how each of these characteristics changes with time, and examine potential metrics to describe and monitor them. We recommend quantifying tree invasions using six metrics: (a) current status in the region; (b) potential status; (c) the number of foci requiring management; (d) area of occupancy (AOO) (i.e. compressed canopy area or net infestation); (e) extent of occurrence (EOO) (i.e. range size or gross infestation); and (f) observations of current and potential impact. We discuss how each metric can be parameterised (e.g. we include a practical method for classifying the current stage of invasion for trees following Blackburn’s unified framework for biological invasions); their potential management value (e.g. EOO provides an indication of the area over which management is needed); and how they can be used in concert (e.g. combining AOO and EOO can provide insights into invasion dynamics; and we use potential status and threat together to develop a simple risk analysis tool). Based on these metrics, we propose a standardized template for reporting tree invasions that we hope will facilitate cross-species and inter-regional comparisons. While we feel this represents a valuable step towards standardized reporting, there is an urgent need to develop more consistent metrics for impact and threat, and for many specific purposes additional metrics are still needed (e.g. detectability is required to assess the feasibility of eradication).
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aikio S, Duncan RP, Hulme PE (2010) Herbarium records identify the role of long-distance spread in the spatial distribution of alien plants in New Zealand. J Biogeogr 37:1740–1751
Aslan CE, Rejmanek M, Klinger R (2012) Combining efficient methods to detect spread of woody invaders in urban-rural matrix landscapes: an exploration using two species of Oleaceae. J Appl Ecol 49:331–338
Bean AR (2007) A new system for determining which plant species are indigenous in Australia. Aust Syst Bot 20:1–43
Blackburn TM, Pyšek P, Bacher S, Carlton JT, Duncan RP, Jarošík V, Wilson JRU, Richardson DM (2011) A proposed unified framework for biological invasions. Trends Ecol Evol 26:333–339
Brummer TJ, Maxwell BD, Higgs MD, Rew LJ (2013) Implementing and interpreting local-scale invasive species distribution models. Divers Distrib 19:919–932
Buckley YM, Brockerhoff E, Langer L, Ledgard N, North H, Rees M (2005) Slowing down a pine invasion despite uncertainty in demography and dispersal. J Appl Ecol 42:1020–1030
Caplat P, Cheptou P-O, Diez J, Guisan A, Larson B, MacDougall A, Peltzer D, Richardson DM, Shea K, van Kleunen M, Zhang R, Buckley YM (2013) Movement, impacts and management of plant distributions in response to climate change: insights from invasions. Oikos 122:1265–1274
Caplat P, Coutts S, Buckley YM (2012a) Modeling population dynamics, landscape structure, and management decisions for controlling the spread of invasive plants. In: Ostfeld RS, Schlesinger WH (eds) Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, pp 72–83. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06313.x
Caplat P, Nathan R, Buckley YM (2012b) Seed terminal velocity, wind turbulence, and demography drive the spread of an invasive tree in an analytical model. Ecology 93:368–377
Caplat P, Hui C, Maxwell B, Peltzer D (2014) Cross-scale management strategies for optimal control of trees invading from source plantations. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0608-7
Caswell H (2001) Matrix population models: construction, analysis and interpretation. Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland
Dehnen-Schmutz K (2011) Determining non-invasiveness in ornamental plants to build green lists. J Appl Ecol 48:1374–1380
Diez JM, Hulme PE, Duncan RP (2012) Using prior information to build probabilistic invasive species risk assessments. Biol Invasions 14:681–691
Donaldson JS, Richardson DM and Wilson JRU (2014) Scale-area curves identify artefacts of human use in the spatial structure of an invasive tree. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0602-0
Francis JK, Liogier HA (1991) Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Rico. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report SO-82
Fuentes N, Pauchard A, Sanchez P, Esquivel J, Marticorena A (2013) A new comprehensive database of alien plant species in Chile based on herbarium records. Biol Invasions 15:847–858
Gaston KJ (2003) The structure and dynamics of geographic ranges. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 266
Gaston KJ, Fuller RA (2009) The sizes of species’ geographic ranges. J Appl Ecol 46:1–9
Gordon DR, Mitterdorfer B, Pheloung PC, Ansari S, Buddenhagen C, Chimera C, Daehler CC, Dawson W, Denslow JS, LaRosa A, Nishidal T, Onderdonk DA, Panetta FD, Pyšek P, Randall RP, Richardson DM, Tshidada NJ, Virtue JG, Williams PA (2010) Guidance for addressing the Australian Weed Risk Assessment questions. Plant Prot Q 25:56–74
Guisan A, Tingley R, Baumgartner JB, Naujokaitis-Lewis I, Sutcliffe PR, Tulloch AIT, Regan TJ, Brotons L, McDonald-Madden E, Mantyka-Pringle C, Martin TG, Rhodes JR, Maggini R, Setterfield SA, Elith J, Schwartz MW, Wintle BA, Broennimann O, Austin M, Ferrier S, Kearney MP, Possingham HP, Buckley YM (2013) Predicting species distributions for conservation decisions. Ecology Letters 16:1424–1435
Gundale MJ, Pauchard A, Langdon B, Peltzer DA, Maxwell BD, Nuñez MA (2014) Can model species be used to advance the field of invasion ecology? Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0610-0
Guo Q (2011) Counting “exotics”. Neobiota 9:71–73
Gurevitch J, Fox GA, Wardle GM, Inderjit, Taub D (2011) Emergent insights from the synthesis of conceptual frameworks for biological invasions. Ecology Letters 14(4): 407–418
Higgins SI, Richardson DM, Cowling RM (2000) Using a dynamic landscape model for planning the management of alien plant invasions. Ecol Appl 10:1833–1848
Horvitz CC (2011) Demography. In: Simberloff D, Rejmánek M (eds) Encyclopedia of biological invasions. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, pp 147–150
Hui C, McGeoch MA, Reyers B, le Roux PC, Greve M, Chown SL (2009) Extrapolating population size from the occupancy-abundance relationship and the scaling pattern of occupancy. Ecol Appl 19:2038–2048
Hui C, Richardson DM, Robertson MP, Wilson JRU, Yates CY (2011) Macroecology meets invasion ecology: linking native distribution of Australian acacias to invasiveness. Divers Distrib 17:872–883
Hui C, Richardson DM, Visser V and Wilson JRU (2014) Macroecology meets invasion ecology: performance of Australian acacias and eucalypts around the world foretold by features of their native ranges. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0599-4
Hulme PE (2003) Biological invasions: winning the science battles but losing the conservation war? Oryx 37:178–193
Hulme PE (2012) Weed risk assessment: a way forward or a waste of time? J Appl Ecol 49:10–19
Ibáñez I, Diez JM, Miller LP, Olden JD, Sorte CJB, Blumenthal DM, Bradley BA, D’Antonio CM, Dukes JS, Early RI, Grosholz ED, Lawler JJ (in press) Integrated assessment of biological invasions. Ecological Appl. doi:10.1890/13-0776.1
IUCN (2012) IUCN red list categories and criteria version 3.1. Gland, Switzerland
Jackson CH (2011) Multi-state models for panel data: the msm package for R. J Stat Softw 38:1–28
Kaplan H, van Niekerk A, Le Roux JJ, Richardson DM, Wilson JRU (2014) Incorporating risk map** at multiple spatial scales into eradication management plans. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0611-z
Koop AL, Horvitz CC (2005) Projection matrix analysis of the demography of an invasive, nonnative shrub (Ardisia elliptica). Ecology 86:2661–2672
Leung B, Roura-Pascual N, Bacher S, Heikkilä J, Brotons L, Burgman MA, Dehnen-Schmutz K, Essl F, Hulme PE, Richardson DM, Sol D, Vilà M (2012) TEASIng apart alien species risk assessments: a framework for best practices. Ecol Lett 15:1475–1493
Lowe S, Browne M, Boudjelas S, De Poorter M (2000) 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien apecies a selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), World Conservation Union (IUCN), 12 pp
Mace GM, Collar NJ, Gaston KJ, Hilton-Taylor C, Akcakaya HR, Leader-Williams N, Milner-Gulland EJ, Stuart SN (2008) Quantification of extinction risk: IUCN’s System for classifying threatened species. Conserv Biol 22:1424–1442
Mackenzie DI, Royle JA (2005) Designing occupancy studies: general advice and allocating survey effort. J Appl Ecol 42:1105–1114
Marco DE, Paez SA (2000) Invasion of Gleditsia triacanthos in Lithraea ternifolia Montane forests of central Argentina. Environ Manage 26:409–419
Martin N, Paynter Q (2010) Assessing the biosecurity risk from pathogens and herbivores to indigenous plants: lessons from weed biological control. Biol Invasions 12:3237–3248
McGeoch MA, Butchart SHM, Spear D, Marais E, Kleynhans EJ, Symes A, Chanson J, Hoffmann M (2010) Global indicators of biological invasion: species numbers, biodiversity impact and policy responses. Divers Distrib 16:95–108
McGeoch MA, Spear D, Kleynhans EJ, Marais E (2012) Uncertainty in invasive alien species listing. Ecol Appl 22:959–971
McNaught I, Thackway R, Brown L, Parsons M (2006) A field manual for surveying and map** nationally significant weeds. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra
Münzbergová Z, Hadincová V, Wild J and Kindlmannová J (2013) Variability in the contribution of different life stages to population growth as a key factor in the invasion success of Pinus strobus. PLoS ONE 8
Nuñez MA, Medley KA (2011) Pine invasions: climate predicts invasion success; something else predicts failure. Divers Distrib 17:703–713
Nuñez MA, Pauchard A (2010) Biological invasions in develo** and developed countries: does one model fit all? Biol Invasions 12:707–714
Panetta FD, Csurhes S, Markula A, Hannan-Jones M (2011) Predicting the cost of eradication for 41 Class 1 declared weeds in Queensland. Plant Prot Q 26:42–46
Parker IM, Simberloff D, Lonsdale WM, Goodell K, Wonham M, Kareiva PM, Williamson MH, Holle BV, Moyle PB, Byers JE, Goldwasser L (1999) Impact: toward a framework for understanding the ecological effects of invaders. Biol Invasions 1:3–19
Pauchard A, Shea K (2006) Integrating the study of non-native plant invasions across spatial scales. Biol Invasions 8:399–413
Pereira HM, Ferrier S, Walters M, Geller GN, Jongman RHG, Scholes RJ, Bruford MW, Brummitt N, Butchart SHM, Cardoso AC, Coops NC, Dulloo E, Faith DP, Freyhof J, Gregory RD, Heip C, Hoft R, Hurtt G, Jetz W, Karp DS, McGeoch MA, Obura D, Onoda Y, Pettorelli N, Reyers B, Sayre R, Scharlemann JPW, Stuart SN, Turak E, Walpole M, Wegmann M (2013) Essential biodiversity variables. Science 339:277–278
Petit RJ (2004) Biological invasions at the gene level. Divers Distrib 10:159–165
Petit RJ, Hampe A (2006) Some evolutionary consequences of being a tree. Annual review of ecology evolution and systematics, p 187–214
Piazza A (2010) About optimal harvesting policies for a multiple species forest without discounting. J Econ 100:217–233
Pichancourt JB, Chades I, Firn J, van Klinken RD, Martin TG (2012) Simple rules to contain an invasive species with a complex life cycle and high dispersal capacity. J Appl Ecol 49:52–62
Pieterse PJ, Cairns ALP (1988) Factors affecting the reproductive success of Acacia longifolia (Andr) Willd. in the Banhoek Valley, South-western Cape, Republic of South Africa. South African J Botany 54:461–464
Potts BM, Barbour RC, Hingston AB, Vaillancourt RE (2003) Genetic pollution of native eucalypt gene pools—identifying the risks. Aust J Bot 51:1–25
Pyšek P, Danihelka J, Sádlo J, Chrtek J, Chytrý M, Jarošík V, Kaplan Z, Krahulec F, Moravcová L, Pergl J, Štajerová K, Tichý L (2012) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (2nd edition): checklist update, taxonomic diversity and invasion patterns. Preslia 84:155–255
Pyšek P, Richardson DM, Pergl J, Jarošík V, Sixtová Z, Weber E (2008) Geographical and taxonomic biases in invasion ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 23:237–244
Pyšek P, Richardson DM, Rejmánek M, Webster GL, Williamson M, Kirschner J (2004) Alien plants in checklists and floras: towards better communication between taxonomists and ecologists. Taxon 53:131–143
Rabinowitz D (1981) Seven forms of rarity. In: Synge H (ed) Aspects of rare plant conservation. Wiley, Chichester, pp 205–217
Randall RP (2007) The introduced flora of Australia and its weed status. CRC for Australian Weed Management, Adelaide
Reichard SH, Hamilton CW (1997) Predicting invasions of woody plants introduced into North America. Conserv Biol 11:193–203
Rejmánek M (2011) Invasiveness. In: Simberloff D, Rejmánek M (eds) Encyclopedia of biological invasions. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, pp 379–385
Rejmánek M, Richardson DM (2013) Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species—2013 update of the global database. Divers Distrib 19:1093–1094
Rejmánek M, Richardson DM, Pyšek P (2013) Chapter 13: Plant invasions and invasibility of plant communities. In: van der Maarel E, Franklin J (eds) Vegetation ecology, vol 2. Wiley, New york, pp 387–424
Rew LJ, Lehnhoff EA, Maxwell BD (2007) Non-indigenous species management using a population prioritization framework. Can J Plant Sci 87:1029–1036
Rew LJ, Maxwell BD, Dougher FL, Aspinall R (2006) Searching for a needle in a haystack: evaluating survey methods for non-indigenous plant species. Biol Invasions 8:523–539
Richardson DM, Brown PJ (1986) Invasion of mesic mountain fynbos by Pinus radiata. South African J Bot 52:529–536
Richardson DM, Pyšek P, Rejmánek M, Barbour MG, Panetta FD, West CJ (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Divers Distrib 6:93–107
Richardson DM, Rejmánek M (2004) Conifers as invasive aliens: a global survey and predictive framework. Divers Distrib 10:321–331
Richardson DM, Rejmánek M (2011) Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species—a global review. Divers Distrib 17:788–809
Robertson MP, Cumming GS, Erasmus BFN (2010) Getting the most out of atlas data. Divers Distrib 16:363–375
Rundel PW, Dickie IE and Richardson DM (2014) Tree invasions into treeless areas: mechanisms and ecosystem processes. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0614-9
Sebert-Cuvillier E, Paccaut F, Chabrerie O, Endels P, Goubet O, Decocq G (2007) Local population dynamics of an invasive tree species with a complex life-history cycle: a stochastic matrix model. Ecol Model 201:127–143
Simberloff D (2011) How common are invasion-induced ecosystem impacts? Biol Invasions 13:1255–1268
Simberloff D, Gibbons L (2004) Now you see them, now you don’t—population crashes of established introduced species. Biol Invasions 6:161–172
Smolik MG, Dullinger S, Essl F, Kleinbauer I, Leitner M, Peterseil J, Stadler LM, Vogl G (2010) Integrating species distribution models and interacting particle systems to predict the spread of an invasive alien plant. J Biogeogr 37:411–422
Stohlgren TJ, Pyšek P, Kartesz J, Nishino M, Pauchard A, Winter M, Pino J, Richardson DM, Wilson JRU, Murray BR, Phillips ML, Ming-yang L, Celesti-Grapow L, Font X (2011) Widespread plant species: natives versus aliens in our changing world. Biol Invasions 13:1931–1944
Thuiller W, Richardson DM, Pyšek P, Midgley GF, Hughes GO, Rouget M (2005) Niche-based modelling as a tool for predicting the risk of alien plant invasions at a global scale. Glob Change Biol 11:2234–2250
United Nations Environment Programme (2010) COP 10 Decision X/2. strategic plan for biodiversity 2011–2020 and the aichi biodiversity targets. Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Tenth meeting, Nagoya, 18–29 Oct 2010. http://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-02-en.pdf
van Kleunen M, Weber E, Fischer M (2010) A meta-analysis of trait differences between invasive and non-invasive plant species. Ecol Lett 13:235–245
van Wilgen BW, Dyer C, Hoffmann JH, Ivey P, Le Maitre DC, Moore JL, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Wannenburgh A, Wilson JRU (2011) National-scale strategic approaches for managing introduced plants: insights from Australian acacias in South Africa. Divers Distrib 17:1060–1075
van Wilgen BW and Richardson DM (2014) Managing invasive alien trees: challenges and trade-offs. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0615-8
Vanden-Broeck A, Cox K, Michiels B, Verschelde P, Villar M (2012) With a little help from my friends: hybrid fertility of exotic Populus x canadensis enhanced by related native Populus nigra. Biol Invasions 14:1683–1696
Veldtman R, Chown SL, McGeoch MA (2010) Using scale-area curves to quantify the distribution, abundance and range expansion potential of an invasive species. Divers Distrib 16:159–169
Visser V, Langdon B, Pauchard A, Richardson DM (2014) Unlocking the potential of Google Earth as a tool in invasion science. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0604-y
Widrlechner MP, Thompson JR, Iles JKD, Dixon PM (2004) Models for predicting the risk of naturalization of non-native woody plants in Iowa. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 22:23–31
Williams JW, Jackson ST (2007) Novel climates, no-analog communities, and ecological surprises. Front Ecol Environ 5:475–482
Williamson MH, Fitter A (1996) The characters of successful invaders. Biol Conserv 78:163–170
Wilson JRU, Dormontt EE, Prentis PJ, Lowe AJ, Richardson DM (2009) Something in the way you move: dispersal pathways affect invasion success. Trends Ecol Evol 24:136–144
Wilson JRU, Gairifo C, Gibson MR, Arianoutsou M, Bakar BB, Baret S, Celesti-Grapow L, DiTomaso JM, Dufour-Dror JM, Kueffer C, Kull CA, Hoffmann JH, Impson FAC, Loope LL, Marchante E, Marchante H, Moore JL, Murphy D, Tassin J, Witt A, Zenni RD, Richardson DM (2011) Risk assessment, eradication, and biological control: global efforts to limit Australian acacia invasions. Divers Distrib 17:1030–1046
Wilson JRU, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Procheş Ş, Amis MA, Henderson L, Thuiller W (2007) Residence time and potential range: crucial considerations in modelling plant invasions. Divers Distrib 13:11–22
Wilson RJ, Thomas CD, Fox R, Roy DB, Kunin WE (2004) Spatial patterns in species distributions reveal biodiversity change. Nature 432:393–396
Worm B, Hilborn R, Baum J, Branch T, Collie J, Costello C, Fogarty M, Fulton E, Hutchings J, Jennings S, Jensen O, Lotze H, Mace P, McClanahan T, Minto C, Palumbi S, Parma A, Ricard D, Rosenberg A, Watson R, Zeller D (2009) Rebuilding global fisheries. Science 325:578–585
Zenni RD (in press) Analysis of introduction history of invasive plants in Brazil reveals patterns of association between biogeographical origin and reason for introduction. Austral Ecol: 10.1111/aec.12097
Zenni RD, J.-B. L, Lamarque LJ, Porté A (2014) Adaptive evolution, phenotypic plasticity and genotype-environment interactions in trees: implications for invasion biology. Biol Invasions 16. doi:10.1007/s10530-013-0607-8
Zenni RD, Nuñez MA (2013) The elephant in the room: the role of failed invasions in understanding invasion biology. Oikos 122:801–815
Zenni RD, Wilson JRU, Le Roux JJ, Richardson DM (2009) Evaluating the invasiveness of Acacia paradoxa in South Africa. South African J Botany 75:485–496
Zenni RD, Ziller SR (2011) An overview of invasive plants in Brazil. Brazilian J Botany 34:431–446
Acknowledgments
This paper resulted from the workshop “Tree invasions—patterns & processes, challenges & opportunities” held in Bariloche, Argentina in 2012. We thank all participants at the meeting for valuable discussion. Daniel Simberloff and three reviewers provided valuable comments that improved the manuscript. JRUW acknowledges funding from the South African Working for Water Programme of the Department of Environmental Affairs. IAD was supported by Core funding for Crown Research Institutes from the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment’s Science and Innovation Group. AP is funded by Ministry of Economy, ICM P05-002 and Conicyt, PFB-23. DMR acknowledges support from the National Research Foundation (Grant 85417), the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence (partly though the collaborative project with the Working for Water programme on “Research for Integrated Management of Invasive Alien Species”) and the Oppenheimer Memorial Trust. CH was supported by the CPRR 81825 of the NRF. BDM was supported by NSF- WildFIRE PIRE, OISE 09667472. BLW was supported by the CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship. RDZ was supported by CNPq-Brazil and The University of Tennessee.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Example of species report (Acacia paradoxa DC. in South Africa)
Species: Acacia paradoxa DC. example herbarium record: (Slater 7035, BOL). No subspecific information available.
Location: South Africa.
Status: Invasive; D2 under Blackburn; (in cultivation?): not known to be cultivated recently (possibly introduced for ornamentation 100 years ago).
Potential: 6–13 % of South African land area; ~70–160 M ha (Zenni et al. 2009; Moore et al. 2011).
Abundance: ~12,000 plants (2010); 0.7 ha (condensed area); 70,000–700,000 seeds (2010).
Population Growth Rate: Few large individuals, 60–80 % of population <1 m and not reproductive in 2009; only 50 individuals >3 m.
Extent: 1 population; 350 ha (condensed polygon) in terms of uncertainty, a range of values of 155–1,550 ha was used in one modelling exercise (Moore et al. 2011).
Spread: natural radial increase of 100 m year−1 (assumed value), mostly gravity. Potential for seeds to be transported by road vehicles (not realized as yet).
Impact: Monoculture created; nuisance thorns. Impact ZAR 1,701 year−1 ha−1 (uncondensed area, monetary values from 2000) extrapolated from (de Wit et al. 2001). For a completed Australian Weed Risk Assessment see Zenni et al. (2009).
Threat: If potential area is multiplied by impact get to ZAR 100 billion year−1.
Survey method(s) used: Systematic walked transects over ~700 ha to generate point distributions. At a national scale this distinctive species has been included in general field-guides for invasive plants for many years, and dedicated leaflets asking for sightings have been distributed nationally since 2009. Any records should also have been picked up by the substantial on-going research, surveillance, and management into Australian acacias in South Africa.
Notes: eradication plan in place.
Contact: invasivespecies@sanbi.org.za.
Information compiled by: John Wilson, jrwilson@sun.ac.za.
Refs:
de Wit MP, Crookes DJ and van Wilgen BW (2001) Conflicts of interest in environmental management: estimating the costs and benefits of a tree invasion. Biological Invasions 3: 167-178.
Moore JL, Runge MC, Webber BL and Wilson JRU (2011) Contain or eradicate? Optimizing the management goal for Australian acacia invasions in the face of uncertainty. Diversity and Distributions 17: 1047–1059.
Zenni et al. (2009) Evaluating the invasiveness of Acacia paradoxa in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 75: 485–496.
Appendix 2: Example of species report (Pinus contorta Loundon. in New Zealand)
Species: Pinus contorta Loudon.
Pinus contorta Loudon subsp. contorta = Pinus contorta Loudon var. contorta.
Pinus contorta Loudon var. contorta.
Pinus contorta subsp. latifolia = Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm. ex S.Watson.
Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm. ex S.Watson.
Location: New Zealand (numerous locations).
Status: Invasive; E under Blackburn; All four subspecies of lodgepole pine (contorta, bolanderi, latifolia and murrayana) have been planted (Miller and Ecroyd, 1987) and all regenerate naturally. (Ledgard 2001) (in cultivation?): Not known to be cultivated recently. Introduced in 1880 and established widely for erosion control during 1960s and 70s on a few thousand hectares and self-sustaining since then (Miller and Ecroyd 1987, Ledgard 2001). Suggested as possible covering ~100,000 ha by late 1990s (Ledgard 2001).
Potential: all already invasive. 10–15 % of New Zealand land area (i.e. >2.5 M ha) suitable although could be greater.
Abundance: Various density stands. Seeds freely to high elevation and cones relatively young.
Population growth rate: Published information on estimated extent of cover (Miller and Ecroyd 1987, Ledgard 2001) suggests extent may be increasing at between 5 and 8 % per annum despite control efforts.
Extent: Numerous populations (many large and >1,000 hectares) totalling >100,000 ha extent at all densities. Many populations are found in remote locations as a legacy of where their establishment attempted to protect erosion-prone land from mass-movement. Due to their remoteness and potential cost there is little incentive address control or removal.
Spread: Natural radial increase of ~5,000 ha year−1 (assumed value), mostly wind and gravity.
Impact: Major visual transformation of iconic grazed grasslands into forest, with consequent recreational value loss and aesthetic impact. Invasions most problematic in low-stature native vegetation (Froude 2011), with up to 100 % loss of native plant biodiversity from high elevation grasslands (Ledgard & Paul 2008), strong shifts in fungal communities (Dickie et al. 2010) and, based on results from Pinus nigra strong effects on soil invertebrate diversity even at low tree-densities (Dickie et al. 2011). Economic loss through reduction in land for low-intensity grazing (sheep, beef-cattle). Loss of water a serious concern in some areas (Fahey & Jackson 1997).
Threat: Highest threat is in conservation grasslands and alpine zone where removal will have high non-target impacts.
Survey method(s) used: No national objective survey or monitoring. One province (Canterbury Regional Council) has systematic estimates of extent of cover and density in 11 representative catchments ~70,000 ha to generate point and polygon distributions. Department of Conservation records the presence of weed species in a 10 × 10 km grid.
Notes: Limited control in a few locations.
Contact: Ian Dickie, ian.dickie@lincoln.ac.za.
Information compiled by: Larry Burrows, burrowsl@landcareresearch.co.nz.
Refs:
Benecke, U. 1967: The weed potential of lodgepole pine. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute Review 13: 36–43.
Dickie IA, Bolstridge N, Cooper JA, Peltzer DA 2010. Co-invasion by Pinus and its mycorrhizal fungi. New Phytologist 187: 475–484.
Dickie IA, Yeates GW, St John MG, Stevenson BA, Scott JT, Rillig MC, Peltzer DA, Orwin KH, Kirschbaum MUF, Hunt JE, Burrows LE, Barbour MM, Aislabie J 2011. Ecosystem service and biodiversity trade-offs in two woody successions. Journal of Applied Ecology 48: 926–934.
Fahey B, Jackson R 1997. Hydrological impacts of converting native forests and grasslands to pine plantations, South Island, New Zealand. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 84:69–82.
Ledgard, N. 2001: The spread of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta, Dougl.) in New Zealand. Forest Ecology and Management 141:43–57.
Ledgard NJ, Paul TSH 2008. Vegetation successions over 30 years of high country grassland invasion by Pinus contorta. New Zealand Plant Protection 61: 98–104.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wilson, J.R.U., Caplat, P., Dickie, I.A. et al. A standardized set of metrics to assess and monitor tree invasions. Biol Invasions 16, 535–551 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0605-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0605-x