Abstract
Sedimentary structures within rock avalanche deposits have gained increasing attention in recent years, since they may provide useful information about the dynamics of such energetic events. This work then is aimed at better defining the physical processes arising during the propagation, paying particular attention to the kinetic sieving mechanism, and strengthening the assumption (widely diffused in the literature) that such a process does not occur for similar events. Specifically, after the examination of two rock avalanche deposits in Central Italy, where cuts through the fragmented deposits are accessible and illustrative of the sediment texture, a series of laboratory flume tests have been performed in order to investigate in detail the flowing process. A simplified physical model for granular agitation has been then introduced to explain how and why kinetic sieving may occur at the laboratory scale and, in the case of natural granular flows of reduced size, also at the field scale.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aduskin VV (2006) Mobility of rock avalanches triggered by underground nuclear explosions. In: Evans SG, Scarascia Mugnozza G, Strom AL, Hermanns RL (eds.) Landslides from massive rock slope failure. Nato science series book, IV earth and environmental sciences 49. Springer Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 267–284
Ahmadipur A, Qiu T, Sheikh B (2019) Investigation of basal friction effects on impact force from a granular sliding mass to a rigid obstruction. Landslides, in press 16:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01156-0
Ahn H, Brennen CE, Sabersky RH (1992) Analysis of the fully developed chute flow of granular materials. J Appl Mech 59:109–119. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2899415
Ancey C (2001) Dry granular flows down an inclined channel: experimental investigations on the frictional-collisional regime. Phys Rev E 65:011304. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.65.011304
Bagnold RA (1954) Experiments on a gravity-free dispersion of large solid spheres in a Newtonian fluid under shear. Proc of the R Soc A 225(1160):49–63. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1954.0186
Bartelt P, McArdell BW (2009) Granulometric investigations of snow avalanches. J Glaciol 55:829–833. https://doi.org/10.3189/002214309790152384
Barth NC (2014) The Cascade rock avalanche: implications of a very large alpine fault-triggered failure, New Zealand. Landslides 11:327–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0389-1
Bertran P (2003) The rock-avalanche of February 1995 at Claix (French Alps). Geomorphology 54:339–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(03)00041-2
Bharathraj S, Kumaran V (2017) Effect of base topography on dynamics and transition in a dense granular flow. J Fluid Mech 832:600–640. https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2017.683
Bianchi Fasani G (2004) Grandi frane in roccia: fenomenologia ed evidenze di terreno. PhD Thesis, “Sapienza” University of Rome: 192
Bianchi Fasani G, Di Luzio E, Esposito C, Martino S, Scarascia Mugnozza G (2011) Numerical modelling of Plio-Quaternary slope evolution based on geological constraints: a case study from the Caramanico Valley (Central Apennines, Italy). In: Jaboyedoff M (ed.) Slope tectonics. Geological society, London, special publications 351: 201–214 doi: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP351.11
Bianchi Fasani G, Di Luzio E, Esposito C, Evans SG, Scarascia Mugnozza G (2014) Quaternary, catastrophic rock avalanches in the Central Apennines (Italy): relationships with inherited tectonic features, gravity-driven deformations and the geodynamic frame. Geomorphology 211:22–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.12.027
Bowman ET, Take WA, Rait KL, Hann C (2012) Physical models of rock avalanche spreading behaviour with dynamic fragmentation. Can Geotech J 49:460–476. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-007
Breien H, De Blasio FV, Elverhøi A, Høeg K (2008) Erosion and morphology of a debris flow caused by a glacial lake outburst flood, western Norway. Landslides 5:271–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-008-0118-3
Brilliantov NV, Poschel T (2010) Kinetic theory of granular gases: pp 344. Oxford University Press Oxford, UK
Brodu N, Delannay R, Valance A, Richard P (2015) New patterns in high-speed granular flows. J Fluid Mech 769:218–228. https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2015.109218
Cagnoli B, Romano GP (2012) Effects of flow volume and grain size on mobility of dry granular flows of angular rock fragments: a functional relationship of scaling parameters. J Geophys Res 117:B02207. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB008926
Calder ES, Sparks RSJ, Gardeweg MC (2000) Erosion, transport and segregation of pumice and lithic clasts in pyroclastic flows inferred from ignimbrite at Lascar volcano, Chile. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 104:201–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00207-9
Campbell C, Brennen C (1985) Computer simulation of granular shear flows. J Fluid Mech 151:167–188. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002211208500091X
Catenacci V (1974) Note illustrative della Carta Geologica d’Italia: Foglio 147 Lanciano. Servizio Geologico Italiano, Rome, Italy, p 87
Cheng YM, Ivan Fung WH, Li L, Li N (2019) Laboratory and field tests and distinct element analysis of dry granular flows and segregation processes. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 19:181–199. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-181-2019
Chevalier G, Davies T, McSaveney M (2009) The prehistoric Mt Wilberg rock avalanche, Westland, New Zealand. Landslides 6:253–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-009-0156-5
Clague JJ, Evans SG (1987) Rock avalanches. Can Geogr / Le Géographe canadien 31:278–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.1987.tb01243.x
Cleary PW, Campbell C (1993) Self-lubrication for long runout landslides: examination by computer simulation. J Geophys Res 98:21911–21924. https://doi.org/10.1029/93JB02380
Coe JA, Baum RL, Allstadt KE, Kochevar BF Jr, Schmitt RG, Morgan ML, White JL, Stratton BT, Hayashi TA, Kean JW (2016) Rock-avalanche dynamics revealed by large-scale field map** and seismic signals at a highly mobile avalanche in the West Salt Creek valley, western Colorado. Geosphere 12:607–631. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01265.1
Conway SJ, Decaulne A, Balme MR, Murray JB, Towner MC (2010) A new approach to estimating hazard posed by debris flows in the Westfjords of Iceland. Geomorphology 114:556–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.08.015
Cox SC, McSaveney MJ, Spencer J, Allen SK, Ashraf S, Hancox GT, Sirguey P, Salichon J, Ferris BG (2015) Rock avalanche on 14 July 2014 from Hillary Ridge, Aoraki/Mount Cook, New Zealand. Landslides 12:395–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0556-7
Cross R (2014) Impact behavior of hollow balls. Am J Phys 82:189–195. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.4839055
Crosta GB, Frattini P, Fusi N (2007) Fragmentation in the Val Pola rock avalanche. Italian Alps J of Geophys Res 112:F01006. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JF000455
Cruden DM, Hungr O (1986) The debris of the Frank Slide and theories of rockslide-avalanche mobility. Can J Earth Sci 23:425–432. https://doi.org/10.1139/e86-044
Dai FC, Tu XB, Xu C, Gong QM, Yao X (2011) Rock avalanches triggered by oblique-thrusting during the 12 May 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, China. Geomorphology 132:300–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.05.016
Davies T, McSaveney MJ (1999) Runout of dry granular avalanches. Can Geotech J 36:313–320. https://doi.org/10.1139/t98-108
Davies T, McSaveney MJ, Hodgson KA (1999) A fragmentation-spreading model for long-runout rock avalanches. Can Geotech J 36:1096–1110. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-067
Davies T (2018) Rock avalanches. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science http://oxfordrecom/naturalhazardscience/view/101093/acrefore/97801993894070010001/acrefore-9780199389407-e-326 Last accessed 25 March 2019
Degaetano M., Lacaze L., Phillips J.C. (2013) The influence of localised size reorganisation on short-duration bidispersed granular flows. Eur Physical J, E. soft matters, 36: 9850 doi: https://doi.org/10.1140/epje/i2013-13036-9
De Blasio FV (2011) Dynamical stress in force chains of granular media travelling on a bumpy terrain and the fragmentation of rock avalanches. Acta Mech 221:375–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-011-0504-0
De Blasio FV, Crosta GB (2014) Simple physical model for the fragmentation of rock avalanches. Acta Mech 225:243–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-013-0942-y
De Blasio FV, Medici L (2016) Microscopic model of rock melting beneath landslides calibrated on the mineralogical analysis of the Köfels frictionite. Landslides 14:337–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0700-z
Della Seta M, Esposito C, Marmoni GM, Martino S, Scarascia Mugnozza G, Troiani F (2017) Morpho-structural evolution of the valley-slope systems and related implications on slope-scale gravitational processes: new results from the Mt. Genzana case history (Central Apennines, Italy). Geomorphology 289:60–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.003
Di Luzio E, Bianchi Fasani G, Esposito C, Saroli M, Cavinato GP, Scarascia Mugnozza G (2003) Massive rock-slope failure in the Central Apennines (Italy): the case of the Campo di Giove rock avalanche. Bull Eng Geol Environ 63:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-003-0212-7
Dolgunin V, Ukolov A (1995) Segregation modeling of particle rapid gravity flow. Powder Technol 83:95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-5910(94)02954-M
Dufresne A, Davies T, McSaveney M (2010) Influence of runout-path material on emplacement of the Round Top rock avalanche, New Zealand. Earth Surf Process Landf 35:190–201. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1900
Dufresne A (2012) Granular flow experiments on the interaction with stationary runout path materials and comparison to rock avalanche events. Earth Surf Process Landf 37:1527–1541. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3296
Dufresne A, Bösmeier A, Prager C (2016) Sedimentology of rock avalanche deposits – case study and review. Earth-Sci Rev 163:234–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.002
Dufresne A, Dunning SA (2017) Process dependence of grain size distributions in rock avalanche deposits. Landslides 14:1555–1563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0806-y
Dufresne A, Geertsema M, Shugar DH, Koppes M, Higman B, Haeussler PJ, Stark C, Venditti JG, Bonno D, Larseni C, Gulick SPS, McCall N, Waltonk M, Loso MG, Willis MJ (2018) Sedimentology and geomorphology of a large tsunamigenic landslide, Taan Fiord, Alaska. Sediment Geol 364:302–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2017.10.004
Dunning SA, Petley DN, Rosser NJ (2005) The morphology and sedimentology of valley confined rock-avalanche deposits and their effect on potential dam hazard. In: Hungr O, Fell R, Couture R, Eberhardt E (eds) landslide risk management. CRC press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA
Dunning SA, Mitchell WA, Rosser NJ, Petley DN (2007) The Hattian Bala rock avalanche and associated landslides triggered by the Kashmir Earthquake of 8 October 2005. Eng Geol 93:130–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.07.003
Dunning SA, Armitage PJ (2011) The grain-size distribution of rock-avalanche deposits: implications for natural dam stability. In: Evans SG, Hermanns RL, Strom A, Scarascia Mugnozza G (eds.) natural and artificial rockslide dams. Lecture notes in earth sciences, vol. 133, springer, Berlin/Heidelberg: 479–498
Dunning SA, Rosser NJ, McColl ST, Reznichenko NV (2015) Rapid sequestration of rock avalanche deposits within glaciers. Nat Commun 6:7964. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8964
Duran J (2000) Sands, powders and grains. Springer, Berlin, p 214
Erismann TH, Abele G (2001) Dynamics of rockslides and rockfalls. Springer, Berlin, p 316
Esposito C, Di Luzio E, Scarascia Mugnozza G, Bianchi Fasani G (2014) Mutual interactions between slope-scale gravitational processes and morpho-structural evolution of central Apennines (Italy): review of some selected case histories. Rendiconti Accademia dei Lincei – Scienze Fisiche e Naturali 25:151–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-014-0348-3
Evans SG, Hungr O, Clague JJ (2001) Dynamics of the 1984 rock avalanche and associated distal debris flow on Mount Cayley, British Columbia, Canada; implications for landslide hazard assessment on dissected volcanoes. Eng Geol 61:29–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00118-6
Geertsema M, Clague JJ, Schwab JW, Evans SG (2006) An overview of recent large catastrophic landslides in northern British Columbia, Canada. Eng Geol 83:120–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.028
Golick L, Daniels K (2009) Mixing and segregation rates in sheared granular materials. Phys Rev E 80:042301. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.80.042301
Hanes DM, Jenkins JT, Richman MW (1988) The thickness of steady plane shear flows of circular disks driven by identical boundaries. J Appl Mech 55:969–974. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3173749
Hewitt K (1998) Catastrophic landslides and their effects on the Upper Indus streams, Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan. Geomorphology 26:47–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(98)00051-8
Hewitt K (2002) Styles of rock-avalanche depositional complexes conditioned by very rugged terrain, Karakoram Himalaya, Pakistan. In: Evans SG, Degraff JV (eds) Catastrophic landslides: effects, occurrence and mechanisms (reviews in engineering geology). Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, USA
Hsü KJ (1975) Catastrophic debris streams (Sturzstroms) generated by rockfalls. Geol Soc Am Bull 86:129–140
Hungr O (1981) Dynamic of rock avalanches and type of slope movement. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton: 500
Hungr O, Evans SG (2004) Entrainment of debris in rock avalanches: an analysis of a long runout-out mechanism. Geol Soc Am Bull 116:1240–1252. https://doi.org/10.1130/B25362.1
Hungr O, Leroueil S, Picarelli L (2014) The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update. Landslides 11:167–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y
Imre B, Laue J, Springman SM (2010) Fractal fragmentation of rocks within sturzstroms: insight derived from physical experiments within the ETH geotechnical drum centrifuge. Granul Matter 12:267–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10035-009-0163-1
Iverson RM, Vallance JW (2001) New views of granular mass flows. Geology 29:115–118. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0115:NVOGMF>2.0.CO;2
Iverson RM, Denlinger RP (2001) Flow of variably fluidized granular masses across three dimensional terrain: I Coulomb mixture theory. J Geophysical Res B: Solid Earth 106:537–552. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900329
Iverson RM, Logan M, Denlinger RP (2004) Granular avalanches across irregular three-dimensional terrain: 2 Experimental tests. J Geophysical Res 109:F01015. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JF000084
Iverson RM (2005) Debris-flow mechanics. In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris flow hazards and related phenomena: 105–134. Springer–Praxis, Berlin
Jaurand E (1998) Les glaciers disparus de l’Apennin. PhD Thesis, La Sorbonne, Paris
Jiang YJ, Zhao Y, Towhata I, Liu DX (2015) Influence of particle characteristics on impact event of dry granular flow. Powder Technol 270:53–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2014.10.005
Knight JB, Jaeger HM, Nagel SR (1993) Vibration-induced size separation in granular media: the convection connection. Phys Rev Lett 70:3728–3731. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.3728
Lajeunesse E, Mangeney-Castelnau A, Viotte JP (2004) Spreading of a granular mass on a horizontal plane. Phys Fluids 16:2371–2382. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1736611
Legros F (2002) Can dispersive pressure cause inverse grading in grain flows? J Sediment Res 72:166–170. https://doi.org/10.1306/041301720166
Locat P, Couture R, Locat J, Leroueil S, Jaboyedoff M (2006) Fragmentation energy in rock avalanches. Can Geotech J 43:830–851. https://doi.org/10.1139/t06-045
Long H-M, Heng L-LS, Jyun L-CD, Shyu JBH (2012) Late Quaternary landscape evolution and genesis of the 2009 catastrophic landslide in the Hsiao-lin area, southwestern Taiwan. Geomorphology 179:225–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.08.014
Longchamp C, Abellan A, Jaboyedoff M, Manzella I (2016) 3-D models and structural analysis of rock avalanches: the study of the deformation process to better understand the propagation mechanism. Earth Surf Dyn 4:743–755. https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-743-2016
Manzella I, Labiouse V (2009) Flow experiments with gravel and blocks at small scale to investigate parameters and mechanisms involved in rock avalanches. Eng Geol 109:146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.11.006
McColl ST, Davies TRH (2011) Evidence for a rock-avalanche origin for ‘The Hillocks’ “moraine”, Otago, New Zealand. Geomorphology 127:216–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.12.017
McSaveney MJ (1975) The Sherman Glacier rock avalanche of 1964: its emplacement and subsequent effects on the glacier beneath it. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, U.S.A.:426
McSaveney MJ, Davies TRH (2006) Rapid rock mass flow with dynamic fragmentation: inferences from the morphology and internal structure of rockslides and rock avalanches. In: Evans SG, Scarascia Mugnozza G, Strom AL, Hermanns RL (eds.) Landslides from massive rock slope failure. Nato science series book, IV earth and environmental sciences 49. Springer Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 285–304
Montrasio L, Schilirò L (2018) Inferences on modeling rainfall-induced shallow landslides from experimental observations on stratified soils. Italian J Eng Geol Environ 2:77–85. https://doi.org/10.4408/IJEGE.2018-02.O-06
Moreiras SM, Hermanns RL, Fauqué L (2015) Cosmogenic dating of rock avalanches constraining Quaternary stratigraphy and regional neotectonics in the Argentine Central Andes (32° S). Quat Sci Rev 112:45–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.01.016
Nicoletti PG, Sorriso-Valvo M (1991) Geomorphic control of the shape and mobility of rock avalanches. Geol Soc Am Bull 103:1365–1373. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1991)103<1365:GCOTSA>2.3.CO;2
Okura Y, Kitakara H, Sammori T, Kawanami A (2000) The effects of rockfall volume on runout distance. Eng Geol 58:109–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00049-1
Orwin JF, Clague JJ, Gerath RF (2004) The Cheam rock avalanche, Fraser Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Landslides 1:289–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-004-0036-y
Paguican EMR, van Wyk de Vries B, Lagmay AMF (2014) Hummocks: how they form and how they evolve in rockslide-debris avalanches. Landslides 11:67–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-012-0368-y
Paolucci G, Pizzi R, Scarascia Mugnozza G (2001) Analisi preliminare della frana di Lettopalena (Abruzzo). Mem Soc Geol Ital 56:131–137
Pouliquen O, Forterre Y (2002) Friction law for dense granular flows: application to the motion of a mass down a rough inclined plane. J Fluid Mech 453:133–151. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112001006796
Ramirez R, Soto R (2003) Temperature inversion in granular fluids under gravity. Phys A: Stat Mech and its Appl 322:73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4371(03)00028-1
Rhodes M (2008) Introduction to particle technology – 2nd edition. Wiley, Chichester, UK, p 274
Ren Z, Wang K, Yang K, Zhou ZH, Tang YJ, Tian L, Xu ZM (2018) The grain size distribution and composition of the Touzhai rock avalanche deposit in Yunnan. China Eng Geol 234:97–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.01.007
Savage SB, Lun KK (1988) Particle size segregation in inclined chute flow of dry cohesionless granular solids. J Fluid Mech 189:311–335. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002211208800103X
Scarascia Mugnozza G, Bianchi Fasani G, Esposito C, Martino S, Saroli M, Di Luzio E, Evans SG (2006) Rock avalanche and mountain slope deformation in a convex, dipslope: the case of the Majella massif (Central Italy). In: Evans SG, Scarascia Mugnozza G, Strom AL, Hermanns RL (eds.) Landslides from massive rock slope failure. Nato science series book, IV earth and environmental sciences 49. Springer Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 357–376
Schneider D, Bartelt P, Caplan-Auerbach J, Christen M, Huggel C, McArdell BW (2010) Insights into rock-ice avalanche dynamics by combined analysis of seismic recordings and a numerical avalanche model. J Geophys Res 115:F04026. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JF001734
Shreve RL (1966) Sherman landslide, Alaska. Science 154:1639–1643. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.154.3757.1639
Shugar DH, Clague JJ (2011) The sedimentology and geomorphology of rock avalanche deposits on glaciers. Sedimentology 58:1762–1783. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01238.x
Straub S (1996) Self-organization in the rapid flow of granular material: evidence for a major flow mechanism. Geol Rundsch 85:85–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00192064
Strom AL (2004) Rock avalanches of the Ardon River valley at the southern foot of the Rocky Range, Northern Caucasus, North Osetia. Landslides 1:237–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-004-0024-2
Strom AL, Korup O (2006) Extremely large rockslides and rock avalanches in the Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan. Landslides 3:125–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-005-0027-7
Taberlet N, Richard P, Jenkins J, Delannay R (2007) Density inversion in rapid granular flows: the supported regime. Eur Physical J E 22:17–24. https://doi.org/10.1140/epje/e2007-00010-5
Valentino R, Barla G, Montrasio L (2008) Experimental analysis and micromechanical modelling of dry granular flow and impacts in laboratory flume test. Rock Mech Rock Eng 41:153–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-006-0126-3
Voight B (1978) Rockslides and avalanches, 1: natural phenomena - developments in geotechnical engineering, 14A edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 833 pp
Voight B, Glicken H, Janda RJ, Douglas PM (1981) Catastrophic rockslide avalanche of May 18. In: Lipman PW, Mullineaux DR (eds) the 1980 eruptions of Mount St, 1250th edn. US Geological Survey Professional Paper, Helens Washington, pp 347–377
Wang YF, Cheng QG, Shi AW, Yuan YQ, Yin BM, Qiu YH (2019) Sedimentary deformation structures in the Nyixoi Chongco rock avalanche: implications on rock avalanche transport mechanisms. Landslides 16:523–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-1117-7
Wassmer P, Schneider JL, Pollet N, Schmitter-Voirin C (2004) Effects of the internal structure of a rock–avalanche dam on the drainage mechanism of its impoundment, Flims sturzstrom and Ilanz paleo-lake, Swiss Alps. Geomorphology 61:3–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2003.11.003
Weidinger JT, Korupc O, Munackc H, Altenbergerc U, Dunning SA, Tippelte G, Lottermosere W (2014) Giant rockslides from the inside. Earth Planet Sci Lett 389:62–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.017
Wiederseiner S, Andreini N, Épely-Chauvin G, Moser G, Monnereau M, Gray JMNT, Ancey C (2011) Experimental investigation into segregating granular flows down chutes. Phys Fluids 23:0133001. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3536658
Yang QQ, Cai F, Ugai K, Yamada M, Su ZM, Ahmed A, Huang RQ, Xu Q (2011) Some factors affecting mass-front velocity of rapid dry granular flows in a large flume. Eng Geol 122:249–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.06.006
Yang Q, Su Z, Cai F, Ugai K (2015) Enhanced mobility of polydisperse granular flows in a small flume. Geoenviron Dis 2:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-015-0019-4
Zhang M, Yin Y, McSaveney M (2016) Dynamics of the 2008 earthquake-triggered Wenjiagou Creek rock avalanche, Qing**, Sichuan, China. Eng Geol 200:75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.12.008
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Carlo Robiati for his help in carrying out some of the laboratory experiments and Gianluca Bianchi Fasani for sharing the results of some of his field activities. The authors also wish to thank two anonymous referees for their helpful suggestions and constructive comments, which have contributed greatly to improving the quality of the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schilirò, L., Esposito, C., De Blasio, F.V. et al. Sediment texture in rock avalanche deposits: insights from field and experimental observations. Landslides 16, 1629–1643 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01210-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01210-x