Abstract
We studied time budgets and foraging methods in pre-breeding Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, (Eurasian) Teal Anas crecca, Wigeon Anas penelope, Pintail Anas acuta, Shoveler Anas clypeata and Gadwall Anas strepera in subarctic Norway in May. Among all six species studied, foraging accounted for the most common use of time, ranging from 19 % in male Pintail to 40–60 % in female Mallard, Teal, Pintail and Gadwall. Comfort behaviours amounted to 20–34 % of the time budget, and interaction and disturbance were marginal. Vigilance time ranged from 8 % in female Mallard to 20 % in male Pintail. Movement amounted to some 20 % of the time in most species and sexes. In Wigeon, sexes did not differ in time use, whereas in Mallard, Pintail and, in particular, Teal, females foraged more and engaged less in vigilance and interactions than did males. In addition, Teal and Mallard males engaged in the riskier foraging methods less than females, but more in those permitting vigilance. Although overlap in feeding methods was large among these species, Mallard and Teal were generalists, feeding at all depths, Wigeon foraged mainly in shallow water and Pintail foraged essentially in deep water. Our results support the income/capital breeder hypothesis with respect to males only; compared to lighter species, heavier species allocated less time to foraging but more to vigilance. We found no support for the hypothesis that long-distance migrants forage more to compensate for energy loss due to migratory flight. Foraging time in females was related to breeding phenology; early nesters spent more time feeding than later nesters.
Zusammenfassung
Aktivitätsbudgets und Verhaltensweisen der Nahrungssuche bei Gründelenten der Gattung Anas vor der Brutzeit im subarktischen Norwegen
Wir untersuchten Zeitbudgets und Methoden des Nahrungserwerbs bei Stockente Anas platyrhynchos, Krickente Anas crecca, Pfeifente Anas penelope, Spießente Anas acuta, Löffelente Anas clypeata und Schnatterente Anas strepera im Mai vor Beginn der Brutzeit im subarktischen Norwegen. Die meiste Zeit wurde für die Nahrungssuche verwendet; anteilig zwischen 19 % bei männlichen Spießenten bis hin zu 40–60 % bei den Weibchen von Stock-, Krick-, Spieß- und Schnatterente. Der Anteil des Komfortverhaltens betrug 20–34 %, Interaktionen und Störungen traten nur in geringem Maße auf. Wachsamkeitsverhalten nahm zwischen 8 % der Zeit bei Stockentenweibchen und 20 % der Zeit bei Spießerpeln ein. Fortbewegung beanspruchte etwa 20 % der Zeit bei beiden Geschlechtern der meisten Arten. Bei Pfeifenten gab es keine Geschlechtsunterschiede in den Aktivitätsbudgets, wohingegen die Weibchen von Stockente, Spießente und insbesondere Krickente mehr nach Nahrung suchten und weniger an Wachsamkeit und Interaktionen teilhatten als die Männchen. Außerdem nutzen Krick- und Stockentenmännchen bei der Futtersuche im Vergleich zu den Weibchen seltener riskantere Methoden und dafür eher solche, die eine gleichzeitige Wachsamkeit erlaubten. Obgleich die Methoden des Nahrungserwerbs sich zwischen den Arten stark überschnitten, traten Stock- und Krickenten als Generalisten auf, die alle Wassertiefen nutzten, Pfeifenten fanden hauptsächlich in seichtem Wasser ihr Futter, und Spießenten suchten primär in tiefem Wasser nach Nahrung. Unsere Ergebnisse betätigten die „Income-Capital-Breeder“-Hypothese nur in Bezug auf die Männchen; schwerere Arten verbrachten im Vergleich zu leichteren weniger Zeit mit dem Nahrungserwerb als mit Wachsamkeit. Wir fanden dagegen keine Bestätigung der Hypothese, dass Langstreckenzieher mehr nach Futter suchen, um durch den Zug bedingte Energieverluste auszugleichen. Bei den Weibchen hing die mit Nahrungserwerb verbrachte Zeitspanne mit der Brutphänologie zusammen; früh nistende Weibchen verwandten mehr Zeit auf die Futtersuche als später brütende.
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Acknowledgments
The authors extend their sincerest thanks to Per Lundberg for his indispensable maps and for making JE curious about Andøya´s ducks. Anette Jensen of Andenes provided valuable information on the weather, wintering birds and breeding sites. Nigel Turrell at the Andøy Friluftscenter and Ole Petter Bergland at Naturpartner are acknowledged for their logistic help. For data and comments regarding the annual nest initiation order of dabbling ducks in northern Europe we are deeply grateful to Linus Andersson, Preben Clausen, Lars Edenius, Gustaf Egnell, Arni Einarsson, Gunnar Gunnarsson, Adjan de Jong, Ian Newton, Leif Nilsson, Ulf Ottosson, Jukka Rintala, Ulf Sperens, Ole Therkildsen and Marcus Wikman. We thank Tony Fox and an anonymous reviewer for comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. This work was supported by grant V-162-05 from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and a grant from Kone foundation (accorded to C. Arzel).
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Pairwise post-hoc Tukey tests of interspecific differences in the number of observations allocated to six categories of behaviour in males of Mallard, Teal, Wigeon, and Pintail
Behaviour | Species 1 | Species 2 | z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Interaction | Teal | Pintail | 0.022 | 1 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −0.059 | 1 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −1.169 | 0.636 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −0.088 | 1 | |
Mallard | Teal | −1.512 | 0.418 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −0.907 | 0.794 | |
Disturbance | Teal | Pintail | 0.761 | 0.868 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0.425 | 0.973 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 0.961 | 0.766 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −0.381 | 0.981 | |
Mallard | Teal | 0.364 | 0.983 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 0.715 | 0.888 | |
Foraging | Teal | Pintail | 0.519 | 0.953 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −0.869 | 0.816 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −1.083 | 0.692 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −1.659 | 0.337 | |
Mallard | Teal | −2.213 | 0.115 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −0.071 | 1 | |
Comfort | Teal | Pintail | 1.518 | 0.417 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0.749 | 0.873 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 2.399 | 0.074 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −0.473 | 0.964 | |
Mallard | Teal | 1.081 | 0.693 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 1.231 | 0.598 | |
Movement | Teal | Pintail | −0.270 | 0.993 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 1.810 | 0.260 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 0.218 | 0.996 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 2.596 | 0.045 | |
Mallard | Teal | 0.709 | 0.890 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −2.127 | 0.138 | |
Vigilance | Teal | Pintail | −3.927 | <0.001 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −0.842 | 0.829 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −2.068 | 0.158 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 2.240 | 0.108 | |
Mallard | Teal | 2.139 | 0.135 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −0.888 | 0.805 |
Appendix 2
Pairwise post-hoc Tukey tests of interspecific differences in the number of observations allocated to six categories of behaviour in females of Mallard, Teal, Wigeon, and Pintail
Behaviour | Species 1 | Species 2 | z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Interaction | Teal | Pintail | −0.550 | 0.944 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0.498 | 0.958 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 1.166 | 0.639 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 0.942 | 0.775 | |
Mallard | Teal | 1.908 | 0.217 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 0.501 | 0.957 | |
Disturbance | Teal | Pintail | 0 | 1 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0 | 1 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 0 | 1 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −0.034 | 1 | |
Mallard | Teal | 1.376 | 0.459 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 1.361 | 0.469 | |
Foraging | Teal | Pintail | −0.956 | 0.760 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −3.098 | 0.010 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −0.246 | 0.994 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −3.676 | 0.001 | |
Mallard | Teal | 0.724 | 0.879 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 3.373 | 0.004 | |
Comfort | Teal | Pintail | −1.005 | 0.735 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0.639 | 0.915 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −1.134 | 0.656 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 1.834 | 0.246 | |
Mallard | Teal | −0.342 | 0.985 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −1.725 | 0.298 | |
Movement | Teal | Pintail | 1.835 | 0.247 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 3.039 | 0.012 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 0.270 | 0.993 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 2.370 | 0.079 | |
Mallard | Teal | −1.443 | 0.460 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −2.979 | 0.015 | |
Vigilance | Teal | Pintail | 0.078 | 1 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 1.327 | 0.536 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −0.020 | 1 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 1.835 | 0.249 | |
Mallard | Teal | −0.092 | 1 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −1.284 | 0.563 |
Appendix 3
Post-hoc Tukey tests of interspecific differences in the number of observations allocated to different foraging methods (column ‘behaviour’) in Teal, Wigeon, Mallard and Pintail males
Behaviour | Species 1 | Species 2 | z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
On land | Teal | Pintail | −1.168 | 0.601 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 1.826 | 0.221 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 1.690 | 0.284 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 2.448 | 0.054 | |
Mallard | Teal | 2.222 | 0.095 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −0.474 | 0.957 | |
Water surface | Teal | Pintail | 2.328 | 0.084 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 4.548 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 1.441 | 0.453 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 4.166 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Teal | −1.098 | 0.673 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −4.630 | <0.001 | |
Head under water | Teal | Pintail | 2.323 | 0.083 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 1.551 | 0.382 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 2.382 | 0.072 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −0.926 | 0.775 | |
Mallard | Teal | 0.479 | 0.960 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 1.228 | 0.585 | |
Neck under water | Teal | Pintail | −2.415 | 0.069 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −6.833 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −3.623 | 0.002 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −6.385 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Teal | −2.306 | 0.091 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 4.763 | <0.001 | |
Up-ending | Teal | Pintail | −0.311 | 0.987 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0.000 | 1.000 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −0.431 | 0.967 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 0.000 | 1.000 | |
Mallard | Teal | −0.243 | 0.994 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Appendix 4
Post-hoc Tukey tests of interspecific differences in the number of observations allocated to different foraging methods (column ‘behaviour’) in Teal, Wigeon, Mallard and Pintail females
Behaviour | Species 1 | Species 2 | z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
On land | Teal | Pintail | −2.299 | 0.073 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 2.910 | 0.013 | |
Mallard | Pintail | N/A | ||
Wigeon | Teal | 3.924 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Teal | N/A | ||
Mallard | Wigeon | N/A | ||
Water surface | Teal | Pintail | 0.513 | 0.953 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 2.135 | 0.132 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 0.215 | 0.996 | |
Wigeon | Teal | 3.145 | 0.008 | |
Mallard | Teal | −0.197 | 0.997 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | −1.750 | 0.280 | |
Head under water | Teal | Pintail | 1.090 | 0.680 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −1.201 | 0.609 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 1.208 | 0.604 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −2.386 | 0.074 | |
Mallard | Teal | −0.179 | 0.998 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 2.085 | 0.147 | |
Neck under water | Teal | Pintail | −0.132 | 0.999 |
Wigeon | Pintail | −4.018 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Pintail | −0.266 | 0.993 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −4.926 | <0.001 | |
Mallard | Teal | −0.154 | 0.999 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 3.541 | 0.002 | |
Up-ending | Teal | Pintail | 0.065 | 1 |
Wigeon | Pintail | 0.003 | 1 | |
Mallard | Pintail | 1.280 | 0.663 | |
Wigeon | Teal | −0.066 | 1 | |
Mallard | Teal | 1.046 | 0.703 | |
Mallard | Wigeon | 1.103 | 0.668 |
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Arzel, C., Elmberg, J. Time use and foraging behaviour in pre-breeding dabbling ducks Anas spp. in sub-arctic Norway. J Ornithol 156, 499–513 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-014-1151-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-014-1151-8