Abstract
We monitored variation in seasonal and annual net ecosystem production (NEP), gross primary production (GPP), and ecosystem respiration (R E) based on 7-year eddy covariance measurements above a cool–temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest (Japanese beech forest). The 7-year means (±SD) of annual NEP, GPP, and R E were 312 ± 64, 1250 ± 62, and 938 ± 36 g C m−2 year−1, respectively. Variation in NEP was much larger than variation in GPP and R E. During the growing season, the main factor controlling carbon balance was air temperature; variation in seasonal integrated NEP was regulated by accumulated air temperature (degree-day) with a significant negative correlation, whereas the seasonal ratio of R E to GPP was correlated positively with accumulated air temperature. Because the deviation of seasonal NEP was also significantly correlated with seasonal R E/GPP, NEP was controlled by R E/GPP, depending on air temperature during the growing season. Seasonal R E in the defoliation and snow seasons was also important for evaluating the annual carbon balance, because the total number of days in the two seasons was quite large owing to a long snowy winter. In the defoliation and snow seasons, we found defoliation season length was a major factor determining seasonal integrated R E, illustrating the positive correlation between R E and defoliation season length. The major factors controlling interannual variations in forest carbon balance are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AsiaFlux (2010) AsiaFlux website, http://www.asiaflux.net/index.html. Accessed 26 Sep 2011
Aubinet M, Chermanne B, Vandenhaute M, Longdoz B, Yernaux M, Laitat E (2001) Long term carbon dioxide exchange above a mixed forest in the Belgian Ardennes. Agric For Meteorol 108:293–315
Aubinet M, Heinesch B, Longdoz B (2002) Estimation of the carbon sequestration by a heterogeneous forest: night flux corrections, heterogeneity of the site and inter-annual variability. Global Change Biol 8:1053–1071
Baldocchi D (2003) Assessing the eddy covariance technique for evaluating carbon dioxide exchange rates of ecosystems: past, present and future. Global Change Biol 9:479–492
Baldocchi D, Vogel CA, Hall B (1997) Seasonal variation of carbon dioxide exchange rates above and below a boreal jack pine forest. Agric For Meteorol 83:147–170
Barr AG, Black TA, Hogg EH, Kljun N, Morgenstern K, Nesic Z (2004) Inter-annual variability in the leaf area index of a boreal aspen-hazelnut forest in relation to net ecosystem production. Agric For Meteorol 126:237–255
Black TA, Chen WJ, Barr AG, Arain MA, Chen Z, Nesic Z, Hogg EH, Neumann HH, Yang PC (2000) Increased carbon sequestration by a boreal deciduous forest in years with a warm spring. Geophys Res Lett 27:1271–1274
Carrara A, Kowalski AS, Neirynck J, Janssens IA, Yuste JC, Ceulemans R (2003) Net ecosystem CO2 exchange of mixed forest in Belgium over 5 years. Agric For Meteorol 119:209–227
Carrara A, Janssens IA, Yuste JC, Ceulemans R (2004) Seasonal changes in photosynthesis, respiration and NEE of a mixed temperate forest. Agric For Meteorol 126:15–31
Chen WJ, Black TA, Yang PC, Barr AG, Neumann HH, Nesic Z, Blanken PD, Novak MD, Eley J, Ketler RJ, Cuenca R (1999) Effects of climatic variability on the annual carbon sequestration by a boreal aspen forest. Global Change Biol 5:4–53
Dunn AL, Barford CC, Wofsy SC, Goulden ML, Daube BC (2007) A long-term record of carbon exchange in a boreal black spruce forest: means, response to interannual variability, and decadal trends. Global Change Biol 13:577–590
Falge E, Tenhunen J, Baldocchi D, Aubinet M, Bakwin P, Berbigier P, Bernhofer C, Bonnefond J-M, Burba G, Clement R, Davis KJ, Elbers JA, Falk M, Goldstein AH, Grelle A, Granier A, Grünwald T, Guðmundsson J, Hollinger D, Janssens IA, Keronen P, Kowalski AS, Katul G, Law BE, Malhi Y, Meyers T, Monson RK, Moors E, Munger JW, Oechel W, Paw UKT, Pilegaard K, Rannik Ü, Rebmann C, Suyker A, Thorgeirsson H, Tirone G, Turnipseed A, Wilson K, Wofsy S (2002a) Phase and amplitude of ecosystem carbon release and uptake potentials as derived from FLUXNET measurements. Agric For Meteorol 113:75–95
Falge E, Tenhunen J, Baldocchi D, Aubinet M, Bakwin P, Berbigier P, Bernhofer C, Bonnefond J-M, Burba G, Clement R, Davis KJ, Elbers JA, Falk M, Goldstein AH, Grelle A, Granier A, Grünwald T, Guðmundsson J, Hollinger D, Janssens IA, Keronen P, Kowalski AS, Katul G, Law BE, Malhi Y, Meyers T, Monson RK, Moors E, Munger JW, Oechel W, KT Paw U, Pilegaard K, Rannik Ü, Rebmann C, Suyker A, Thorgeirsson H, Tirone G, Turnipseed A, Wilson K, Wofsy S (2002b) Phase and amplitude of ecosystem carbon release and uptake potentials as derived from FLUXNET measurements. Agric For Meteorol 113:75–95
Falk M, Wharton S, Schroeder M, Ustin S, Paw U KT (2008) Flux partitioning in an old-growth forest: seasonal and interannual dynamics. Tree Physiol 28:509–520
FLUXNET (2010) FLUXNET Website, http://www.fluxnet.ornl.gov/fluxnet/index.cfm. Accessed 26 Sep 2011
Forest Soil Division (1976) Classification of forest soil (1975). Bull Gov For Exp Sta 280:1–28
Goulden ML, Munger JW, Fan S-M, Daube BC, Wofsy SC (1996a) Exchange of carbon dioxide by a deciduous forest: response to interannual climate variability. Science 271:1576–1578
Goulden ML, Munger JW, Fan S-M, Daube BC, Wofsy SC (1996b) Measurements of carbon sequestration by long-term eddy covariance: methods and a critical evaluation of accuracy. Global Change Biol 2:169–182
Grant RF, Barr AG, Black TA, Margolis HA, Dunn AL, Metsaranta J, Wang S (2009) Interannual variation in net ecosystem productivity of Canadian forests as affected by regional weather patterns—a Fluxnet-Canada synthesis. Agric For Meteorol 149:2022–2039
Greco S, Baldocchi DD (1996) Seasonal variations of CO2 and water vapour exchange rates over a temperate deciduous forest. Global Change Biol 2:183–197
Griffis TJ, Black TA, Morgenstern K, Barr AG, Nesic Z, Drewitt GB, Gaumont-Guay D, McCaughey JH (2003) Ecophysiological controls on the carbon balances of three southern boreal forests. Agric For Meteorol 117:53–71
Hashimoto T, Miura S, Ishizuka S (2009) Temperature controls temporal variation in soil CO2 efflux in a secondary beech forest in Appi Highlands, Japan. J For Res 14:44–50
Hignett P (1992) Corrections to temperature measurements with a sonic anemometer. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 61:175–187
Hirata R, Hirano T, Saigusa N, Fu**uma Y, Inukai K, Kitamori Y, Takahashi Y, Yamanoto S (2007) Seasonal and interannual variations in carbon dioxide exchange of a temperate larch forest. Agric For Meteorol 147:110–124
Hirata R, Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Ohtani Y, Ide R, Asanuma J, Gamo M, Hirano T, Kondo H, Kosugi Y, Li S-G, Nakai Y, Takagi K, Tani M, Wang H (2008) Spatial distribution of carbon balance in forest ecosystems across East Asia. Agric For Meteorol 148:761–775
Ishizuka S, Sakata T, Sawata S, Ikeda S, Takenaka C, Tamai N, Sakai H, Shimizu T, Kan-Na K, Onodera S, Tanaka N, Takahashi M (2006) High potential for increase in CO2 flux from forest soil surface due to global warming in cooler areas of Japan. Ann For Sci 63:537–546
Kaimal JC, Gaynor JE (1991) Another look at sonic thermometry. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 56:401–410
Kamata N (2000) Population dynamics of the beech caterpillar, Syntypistis punctatella, and biotic and abiotic factors. Popul Ecol 42:267–278
Kamata N (2005) Diverse world of forest insects in Japan: ecology, evolution, and conservation. Tokai University Press, Kanagawa (in Japanese)
Kato T, Tang Y (2008) Spatial variability and major controlling factors of CO2 sink strength in Asian terrestrial ecosystems: evidence from eddy covariance data. Global Change Biol 14:2333–2348
Kira T (1977) Forest vegetation of Japan. In: Shidei T, Kira T (eds) Primary productivity of Japanese forests: productivity of terrestrial communities. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp 1–14
Koike T, Maruyama Y (1998) Comparative ecophysiology of the leaf photosynthetic traits in Japanese beech grown in provenances facing the Pacific ocean and the Sea of Japan. J Phytogeogr Taxon 46:23–28 (in Japanese with English summary)
Kominami Y, Takami S (1996) Development of a gas diffusion coefficient measurement system of snow. Seppyo 58:107–116 (in Japanese with English summary)
Kondo J (1994) Meteorology of the water environment: water and heat balance of the Earth’s surface. Asakura Shoten, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Kuraji K, Punyatrong K, Suzuki M (2001) Altitudinal increase in rainfall in the Mae Chaem watershed, Thailand. J Meteorol Soc Jpn 79:353–363
Law BE, Waring RH, Anthoni PM, Aber JD (2000) Measurements of gross and net ecosystem productivity and water vapour exchange of a Pinus ponderosa ecosystem, and an evaluation of two generalized models. Global Change Biol 6:155–168
Law BE, Falge E, Gu L, Baldocchi DD, Bakwin P, Berbiger P, Davis K, Dolman AJ, Flak M, Fuentes JD, Goldstein A, Granier A, Grelle A, Hollinger F, Janssens IA, Jarvis P, Jensen NO, Katul G, Malhi Y, Matteucci G, Meyers T, Monson R, Munger W, Oechel W, Olson R, Pilegaard K, UKT Paw, Thorgeirsson H, Valentini R, Verma S, Vesala T, Wilson K, Wofsy S (2002) Environmental controls over carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange of terrestrial vegetation. Agric For Meteorol 113:97–120
Leuning R, Judd MJ (1996) The relative merits of open- and closed-path analysers for measurement of eddy fluxes. Global Change Biol 2:241–254
Lloyd J, Taylor A (1994) On the temperature dependence of soil respiration. Funct Ecol 8:315–323
Luyssart S, Inglima I, Jung M, Richardson AD, Reichstein M, Papale D, Piao SL, Schulze ED, Wingate L, Matteucci G, Aragao L, Aubinet M, Beer C, Bernhofer C, Black KG, Bonal D, Monnerfond JM, Chambers J, Ciais P, Cook B, Davis KJ, Dolman AJ, Gielen B, Goulden M, Grace J, Granier A, Grelle A, Griffis T, Grunwald T, Guidolotti G, Hanson PJ, Harding R, Hollinger DY, Hutyra LR, Kolar P, Kruijt B, Kutsch W, Lagergren F, Laurila T, Law BE, le Maire G, Lindroth A, Loustau D, Malhi Y, Mateus J, Miglivavacca M, Misson L, Montagnani L, Moncrieff J, Moors E, Munger JW, Nikinmaa E, Ollinger SV, Pita G, Rebmann C, Roupsard O, Saigusa N, Sanz MJ, Seufert G, Sierra C, Smith ML, Tang J, Valentini R, Vesala T, Janssens IA (2007) CO2 balance of boreal, temperate, and tropical forests derived from a global database. Global Change Biol 13:2509–2537
Maeda T (1991) Vegetation of beech forests. In: Murai H, Yamatani K, Kataoka H, Yui M (eds) Natural environment and its conservation on Buna (Fagus crenata) forest. Soft Science, Tokyo, pp 12–34 (in Japanese)
Mano M, Miyata A, Yasuda Y, Nagai H, Yamada T, Ono K, Saito M, Kobayashi Y (2007) Quality control for the open-path eddy covariance data. J Agric Meteorol 63:125–138 (in Japanese with English summary)
Massman WJ, Lee X (2002) Eddy covariance flux corrections and uncertainties in long-term studies of carbon and energy exchanges. Agric For Meteorol 113:121–144
McMillen RT (1998) An eddy correlation technique with extended applicability to non-simple terrain. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 43:231–245
Mizoguchi Y, Miyata A, Ohtani Y, Hirata R, Yuta S (2009) A review of tower flux observation sites in Asia. J Fore Res 14:1–9
Monson RK, Turnipseed AA, Sparks JP, Harley PC, Scott-Denton LE, Sparks K, Huxman TE (2002) Carbon sequestration in a high-elevation, subalpine forest. Global Change Biol 8:459–478
Morgenstern K, Black TA, Humphreys ER, Griffis TJ, Drewitt GB, Cai T, Nesic Z, Spittlehouse DL, Livingston NJ (2004) Sensitivity and uncertainty of the carbon balance of a Pacific Northwest Douglas-fir forest during an EL Niño/La Niña cycle. Agric For Meteorol 123:201–219
Ohtani Y, Saigusa N, Yamamoto T, Mizoguchi Y, Watanabe T, Yasuda Y, Murayama S (2005) Characteristics of CO2 fluxes in cool–temperate coniferous and deciduous broadleaf forests in Japan. Phyton 45:73–80
Peichl M, Brodeur JJ, Khomik M, Arain MA (2010) Biometric and eddy-covariance based estimates of carbon fluxes in an age-sequence of temperate pine forests. Agric For Meteorol 150:952–965
Reichstein M, Ciais P, Papale D, Valentini R, Running S, Viovy N, Cramer W, Granier A, Ogée J, Allard V, Aubinet M, Bernhofer Chr, Buchmann N, Crarra A, Grünwald T, Heimann M, Heinesch B, Knohl A, Kutsch W, Loustau D, Manca G, Matteucci G, Miglietta F, Ourcival JM, Pilegaard K, Pumpanen J, Rambal S, Schaphoff S, Seufert G, Soussana J-F, Sanz M-J, Vesala T, Zhao M (2007) Reduction of ecosystem productivity and respiration during the European summer 2003 climate anomaly: a joint flux tower, remote sensing and modelling analysis. Global Change Biol 13:634–651
Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Murayama S, Kondo H, Nishimura N (2002) Gross primary production and net ecosystem exchange of a cool–temperate deciduous forest estimated the eddy covariance method. Agric For Meteorol 112:203–215
Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Murayama S, Kondo H (2005) Inter-annual variability of carbon budget components in an AsiaFlux forest site estimated by long-term flux measurements. Agric For Meteorol 134:4–16
Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Hirata R, Ohtani Y, Ide R, Asanuma J, Gamo M, Hirano T, Kondo H, Kosugi Y, Li S-G, Nakai Y, Takagi K, Tani M, Wang H (2008) Temporal and spatial variations in the seasonal patterns of CO2 flux in boreal, temperate, and tropical forests in East Asia. Agric For Meteorol 148:700–713
Suyker AE, Verma SB (1993) Eddy correlation measurements of CO2 flux using a closed-path sensor: theory and field test against an open-path sensor. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 64:391–407
Suzuki H (1962) The classification of Japanese climates. Geograph Rev Jpn 35:205–211 (in Japanese with English summary)
Suzuki S, Ishizuka S, Kitamura K, Yamanoi K, Nakai Y (2006) Continuous estimation of winter carbon dioxide efflux from the snow surface in a deciduous broadleaf forest. J Geophys Res 111. doi:10.1029/2005JD006595
Takagi K, Nomura M, Ashiya D, Takahashi H, Sasa K, Fujunuma Y, Shibata H, Akibayashi Y, Koike T (2005) Dynamic carbon dioxide exchange through snowpack by wind-driven mass transfer in a conifer-broadleaf mixed forest in northernmost Japan. Global Biogeochem Cy 19. doi:10.1029/2004GB002272
Valentini R, De Angelis P, Matteucci G, Monaco R, Dore S, Mugnozza GES (1996) Seasonal net carbon dioxide exchange of a beech forest with the atmosphere. Global Change Biol 2:199–208
Vickers D, Mahrt L (1997) Quality controls and flux sampling problems for tower and air craft data. J Atmos Oceanic Technol 14:512–526
Yamada T, Hibino T, Araki T, Nakatsugawa M (1995) Statistical characteristics of rainfall in mountainous basins. J Hydr Coast Environ Eng (II) 527:1–13 (in Japanese with English summary)
Yang B, Hanson PJ, Riggs JS, Pallardy SG, Heuer M, Hosman KP, Meyers TP, Wullschleger SD, Gu L-H (2007) Biases of CO2 storage in eddy flux measurements in a forest pertinent to vertical configurations of a profile system and CO2 density averaging. J Geophys Res 112. doi:10.1029/2006JD008243
Yasuda Y, Watanabe T (2001) Comparative measurements of CO2 flux over a forest using closed-path and open-path analysers. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 100:191–208
Yasuda Y, Watanabe T, Ohtani Y, Okano M, Nakayama K (1998) Seasonal variation of CO2 flux over a broadleaf deciduous forest. J Jpn Soc Hydrol Water Resour 11:575–585 (in Japanese with English summary)
Acknowledgments
This study was carried out with the support of the Tohoku Regional Forest Office of the Japan Forest Agency. We are grateful to the staff of the Iwate-Hokubu District Forest Office for their support with field observations. We extend our appreciation to Dr Yoshio Awaya for providing litter-fall data and to Dr Ryuichi Hirata for instructing us on the gap-filling method. We also thank our colleagues, Drs G. Hitsuma, Y. Chiba, S. Noguchi, K. Shichi, K. Hirai, and K. Yamanoi for their help during the study. This study was supported financially by the Global Environment Research Account (FY2007-2011) from the Japanese Ministry of the Environment, the project research fund (Environment Research: FY2006-2009) from the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, and research grants (#199903:FY1999-2002 and #200303:FY2003-2005) from the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Yasuda, Y., Saito, T., Hoshino, D. et al. Carbon balance in a cool–temperate deciduous forest in northern Japan: seasonal and interannual variations, and environmental controls of its annual balance. J For Res 17, 253–267 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10310-011-0298-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10310-011-0298-x