Abstract
Recent theoretical models have suggested that bubbles are unlikely to undergo significant migration in a compaction crystal mush by capillary invasion while the system remains partly molten. To test this, experiments of bubble migration during compaction in a crystal-liquid mush were modeled using deformable foam crystals in corn syrup in a volumetric burette, compacted with rods of varying weights. A bubble source was provided by sodium bicarbonate (Alka-Seltzer®). Large bubbles (>several crystal sizes) are pinched by the compacting matrix and become overpressured and deformed as the bubbles experience a load change from hydrostatic to lithostatic. Once they begin to move, they move much faster than the compaction-driven liquid. Bubbles that are about the same size as the crystals but larger than the narrower pore throats move by deformation or breaking into smaller bubbles as they are forced through pore restrictions. Bubbles that are less than the typical pore diameter generally move with the liquid: The liquid + bubble mixture behaves as a single phase with a lower density than the bubble-free liquid, and as a consequence it rises faster than bubble-free liquid and allows for faster compaction. The overpressure required to force a bubble through the matrix (max grain size = 5 mm) is modest, about 5 %, and it is estimated that for a grain size of 1 mm, the required overpressure would be about 25 %. Using apatite distribution in a Stillwater olivine gabbro as an analog for bubble nucleation and growth, it is suggested that relatively large bubbles initially nucleate and grow in liquid-rich channels that develop late in the compaction history. Overpressure from compaction allows bubbles to rise higher into hotter parts of the crystal pile, where they redissolve and increase the volatile content of the liquid over what it would have without the bubble migration, leading to progressively earlier vapor saturation during crystallization of the interstitial liquid. Bubbles can also move rapidly by ‘surfing’ on porosity waves that can develop in a compacting mush.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig1_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig2_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig3_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig4_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig5_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig6_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig7_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig8_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00410-016-1237-9/MediaObjects/410_2016_1237_Fig9_HTML.gif)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aird HM, Boudreau AE (2013) High-temperature carbonate minerals in the Stillwater Complex, Montana, USA. Contrib Mineral Petrol 166:1143–1160
Alger CK, Boudreau BP, Barry MA (2011) Initial rise of bubbles in cohesive sediments by a process of viscoelastic fracture. J Geophys Res 116:B04207. doi:10.1029/2010JB008133
Appold MS, Nunn JA (2002) Numerical models of petroleum migration via buoyancy porosity waves in viscously deformable sediments. Geofluids 2:233–247
Armienti P, Francalanci L, Landi P (2007) Textural effects of steady state behavior of the Stromboli feeding system. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 160:86–98
Bachmann O, Bergantz GW (2006) Gas percolation in upper-crustal silicic crystal mushes as a mechanism for upward heat advection and rejuvenation of near-solidus magma bodies. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 149:85–102
Belien IB, Cashman KV, Rempel AW (2010) Gas accumulation in particle-rich suspensions and implications for bubble populations in crystal-rich magma. Earth Planet Sci Lett 297:133–140. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.014
Boorman SL, McGuire JB, Boudreau AE, Kruger FJ (2003) Fluid overpressure in layered intrusions, Part II: formation of a breccia pipe in the eastern Bushveld Complex, Republic of South Africa. Miner Deposita 38:356–369
Boorman S, Boudreau AE, Kruger FJ (2004) The lower zone—critical zone transition of the Bushveld Complex: a quantitative textural study. J Petrol 45:1209–1235
Boudreau BP (2012) The physics of bubbles in surficial, soft cohesive sediments. Mar Petrol Geol 38:1–18
Boudreau AE, McCallum IS (1986) Investigations of the Stillwater Complex, Part III. The Picket Pin Pt/Pd deposit. Econ Geol 81:1953–1975
Boudreau AE, McCallum IS (1989) Investigations of the Stillwater Complex: part V. Apatites as indicators of evolving fluid composition. Contrib Mineral Petrol 102:138–153
Braun K, Meurer W, Boudreau AE, McCallum IS (1994) Geochemistry of pegmatoids beneath the J-M Reef, Stillwater Complex, Montana. Chem Geol 113:245–257
Burnham CW (1979) Magmas and hydrothermal fluids. In: Barnes HL (ed) Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, pp 71–136
Caltabiano T, Burton M, Giammanov S, Allard P, Bruno N, Murè F, Romano R (2004) Volcanic gas emissions from the summit craters and flanks of Mt. Etna, 1987–2000. Am Geophys Union Geophys Monogr. doi:10.1029/143GM08
Candela PA (1991) Physics of aqueous phase evolution in plutonic environments. Am Mineral 76:1081–1091
Chauveau B, Kaminski E (2008) Porous compaction in transient creep regime and implications for melt, petroleum, and CO2 circulation. J Geophys Res 113:B09406. doi:10.1029/2007JB005088
Chutas NI, Prevec S, Bates E, Coleman D, Boudreau AE (2011) Pb and Sr isotopic disequilibrium between orthopyroxene and plagioclase in the Critical Zone, Bushveld Complex, S. Africa. Contrib Mineral Petrol 163:653–668
Connolly JAD (2010) The mechanics of metamorphic fluid expulsion. Elements. doi:10.2113/gselemnts.6.3.165
Connolly JAD, Podladchikov YY (1998) Compaction-driven fluid flow in viscoelastic rock. Geodin Acta 11:55–84
Connolly JAD, Schmidt MW, Solferino G, Bagdassarov N (2009) Permeability of asthenospheric mantle and melt extraction rates at mid-ocean ridges. Nature 462:209–212. doi:10.1038/nature08517
Davydov MN (2012) Nucleation and growth of a gas bubble in magma. J Appl Mech Tech Phys 53:324–332
Duan Z, Moller N, Weare JH (1996) A general equation of state for supercritical fluid mixtures and molecular dynamics simulation of mixture PVTX properties. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 60:1209–1216
Ferguson J, McCarthy TS (1970) Origin of an ultramafic pegmatoid in the eastern part of the Bushveld Complex. Geol Soc S Afr Spec Pub 1:74–79
Fowler AC, Rust AC, Vynnycky M (2015) The formation of vesicular cylinders in pahoehoe lava flows. Geophys Astro Fluid 109:39–61. doi:10.1080/03091929.2014.955799
Geist D, Boudreau A, Garcia M, Harpp K., Mathez E, Marsh B (2005) Origin of mafic pegmatoids in the Dais Intrusion, Wright Valley, Antarctica. EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 86(52) Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract V14C-07
Gonnermann HM, Manga M (2013) Dynamics of magma ascent in the volcanic conduit. In: Fagents SA, Gregg TKP, Lopes RMC (eds) Modeling volcanic processes: the physics and mathematics of volcanism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 55–84
Gurioli L, Harris AJL, Houghton BF, Polacci M, Ripepe M (2008) Textural and geophysical characterization of explosive basaltic activity at Villarrica volcano. J Geophys Res. doi:10.1029/2007JB005328
Hanley JJ, Mungall JE, Pettke T, Spooner ETC, Bray CJ (2008) Fluid and halide melt inclusions of magmatic origin in the Ultramafic and Lower Banded Series, Stillwater Complex, Montana, USA. J Petrol 49:1133–1160
Haskin LA, Salpas PA (1992) Genesis of compositional characteristics of Stillwater AN-I and AN-II thick anorthosite units. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 56:1187–1212
Huber C, Bachmann O, Vigneresse J-L, Dufek J, Parmigiani A (2012) A physical model for metal extraction and transport in shallow magmatic systems. Geochem Geophys Geosyst. doi:10.1029/2012GC004042
Kanitpanyacharoen W, Boudreau AE (2013) Sulfide-associated mineral assemblages in the Bushveld Complex, South Africa: platinum-group element enrichment by vapor refining by chloride-carbonate fluids. Miner Deposita 48:193–210
Kinloch ED (1982) Regional trends in the platinum-group mineralogy of the Critical zone of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa. Econ Geol 77:1328–1347
Kinnaird JA, Kruger FJ, Nex PAM, Cawthorn RG (2002) Chromitite formation—a key to understanding processes of platinum enrichment. Trans Inst Min Metall B 111:B23–B35
Labotka TC, Kath R (2001) Petrogenesis of the contact-metamorphic rocks beneath the Stillwater Complex, Montana. Geol Soc Am Bull 113:1312–1323
Lake ET (2013) Crystallization and saturation front propagation in silicic magma chambers. Earth Planet Sci Lett 383:182–193
Lee C-TA, Morton DM (2015) High silica granites: terminal porosity and crystal settling in shallow mama chambers. Earth Planet Sci Lett 409:23–31
McKenzie D (1984) The generation and compaction of partially molten rock. J Petrol 25:713–765
Métrich N, Bertagnini A, Landi P, Rosi M (2001) Crystallization driven by decompression and water loss at Stromboli volcano (Aeolian Islands, Italy). J Petrol 42:1471–1490
Meurer WP, Boudreau AE (1996) Compaction of density-stratified cumulates: effect on trapped-liquid distribution. J Geol 104:115–120
Meurer WP, Boudreau AE (1998a) Compaction of igneous cumulates. Part I—geochemical consequences for cumulates and liquid fractionation trends. J Geol 106:281–292
Meurer WP, Boudreau AE (1998b) Compaction of igneous cumulates. Part II—compaction and the development of igneous foliation. J Geol 106:293–304
Meurer WP, Meurer MES (2006) Using apatite to dispel the “trapped liquid” concept and to understand the loss of interstitial liquid by compaction in mafic cumulates: an example from the Stillwater Complex, Montana. Contrib Mineral Petrol 151:187–201
Meurer WP, Klaber SA, Boudreau AE (1997) Discordant bodies from Olivine-Bearing zones III and IV of the Stillwater complex, Montana—evidence for post-cumulus fluid migration in layered intrusions. Contrib Mineral Petrol 130:81–92
Mungall JE (2015) Physical controls of nucleation, growth and migration of vapor bubbles in partially molten cumulates. In: Charlier B, Namur O, Latypov R, Tegner C (eds) Layered intrusions. Springer Geology. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 331–378. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9652-1_8
Oppenheimer J, Rust AC, Cashman KV, Sandnes B (2015) Gas migration regimes and outgassing in particle-rich suspensions. Front Phys 3:1–13. doi:10.3389/fphy.2015.00060
Parmigiani A, Huber C, Bachmann O, Chopard B (2011) Pore-scale mass and reactant transport in multiphase porous media flow. J Fluid Mech 686:40–76. doi:10.1017/jfm.2011.268
Philpotts AR, Carrol M, Hill JM (1996) Crystal-mush compaction and the origin of pegmatitic segregation sheets in a thick flood-basalt flow in the Mesozoic Hartford Basin, Connecticut. J Petrol 37:811–836
Philpotts AR, Shi J, Brustman C (1998) Role of plagioclase crystal chains in the differentiation of partly crystallized basaltic magma. Nature 395:343–346
Philpotts AR, Brustman CM, Shi J, Carlson WD, Denison C (1999) Plagioclase-chain networks in slowly cooled basaltic magma. Am Mineral 84:1819–1829
Pistone M, Arzilli F, Dobson KJ, Cordonnier B, Reusser E, Ulmer P, Marone F, Whittington AG, Mancini L, Fife J, Blundy JD (2015) Gas-driven filter pressing in magmas: insights into in situ melt segregation from crystal mushes. Geology. doi:10.1130/G36766.1
Polacci M, Corsaro RA, Andronico D (2006) Coupled textural and compositional characterization of basaltic scoria: insights into the transition from Strombolian to fire fountain activity at Mount Etna, Italy. Geology 34:201–204
Proussevitch AA, Sahagian DL (1998) Dynamics and energetics of bubble growth in magmas: analytical formulation and numerical modeling. J Geophys Res 103:18223–18251
Rust AC, Cashman KV (2004) Permeability of vesicular silicic magma: inertial and hysteresis effects. Earth Planet Sci Lett 228:93–107
Schmidt MW, Solferino G (2012) Settling and compaction of olivine in basaltic magmas: an experimental study on the time scales of cumulate formation. Contrib Mineral Petrol 164:959–976
Shirley DN (1986) Compaction of igneous cumulates. J Geol 94:795–809
Shirley DN (1987) Differentiation and compaction in the Palisades sill, New Jersey. J Petrol 28:835–865
Sonnenthal EL (1992) Geochemistry of dendritic anorthosites and associated pegmatites in the Skaergaard Intrusion, East Greenland: evidence for metasomatism by a chlorine-rich fluid. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 52:209–230
Stewart JP, Bray JD, McMahon DJ, Smith PM, Kropp A (2001) Seismic performance of hillside fills. J Geotech Geoenviron 127:905–919
Tegner C, Thy P, Holness MB, Jakobsen JK, Lesher CE (2009) Differentiation and compaction in the Skaergaard Intrusion. J Petrol 50:813–840
Toramaru A (1995) Numerical study of nucleation and growth of bubbles in viscous magmas. J Geophys Res 100:1913–1931
Tran A, Rudolph ML, Manga M (2015) Bubble mobility in mud and magmatic volcanoes. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 294:11–24
Vigneresse J-L (2014) Textures and melt-crystal-gas interactions in granites. Geosci Front 6:635–663. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2014.12.004
von Bargen N, Waff HS (1988) Wetting of enstatite by basaltic melt at 1350°C and 1.0 to 2.5 GPa pressure. J Geophys Res 93(B2):9261–9276
Waff HS, Bulau JR (1979) Equilibrium fluid distribution in an ultramafic partial melt under hydrostatic stress conditions. J Geophys Res 84:6109–6114
Wark DA, Williams CA, Watson EB, Price JD (2003) Reassessment of pore shapes in microstructurally equilibrated rocks, with implications for permeability of the upper mantle. J Geophys Res. doi:10.1029/2001JB001575
Willmore CC, Boudreau AE, Kruger FJ (2000) The halogen geochemistry of the Bushveld Complex, Republic of South Africa: implications for chalcophile element distribution in the lower and critical zones. J Petrol 41:1517–1539
Acknowledgments
Much thanks for discussions of earlier thoughts on this manuscript by Bernard Boudreau of Dalhousie University and Andrea Parmigiani of ETH Zürich. Careful reviews by Mattia Pistone of the Smithsonian Institution and two anonymous reviewers much improved the quality of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Othmar Müntener.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Supplementary material 1 (MP4 372366 kb)
Supplementary material 2 (MP4 19170 kb)
Supplementary material 3 (MP4 376753 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Boudreau, A. Bubble migration in a compacting crystal-liquid mush. Contrib Mineral Petrol 171, 32 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-016-1237-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-016-1237-9