Abstract
Soil salinization is a limiting factor for irrigated agriculture, and inappropriate irrigation and fertigation continues to worsen the problem, especially in arid regions. Determination of threshold soil salinity is of great environmental importance for salinity control in irrigation areas. A two consecutive year’s cotton field experiment was conducted to develop the dynamic threshold soil salinity (Sth) and quantitatively evaluate the effects of applying nitrogen on salinity stress alleviation. Four irrigation amounts (75%, 100%, 125%, and 150% of crop water requirement) and four nitrogen application rates (195, 255, 315, and 375 kg ha−1) were applied with groundwater and brackish water irrigation to produce the dynamic soil salinity (EC1:5) and mineral nitrogen (N) content pools with a wide range of values. Results showed that the EC1:5 and soil N pools were built-up in a range of 0.16−1.68 dS m−1 and 0.3–17.9 mg kg−1. The Sth for cotton at the seedling, squaring, flower boll, and mature stages were 0.69, 0.74, 1.02, and 1.02 dS m−1, respectively. Cotton crops presented the highest nitrogen uptake at optimal soil mineral nitrogen values of 12.7 and 16.2 mg kg−1 during the reproductive growth stage, and an appropriate nitrogen application rate increased the Sth by 19−126%. In addition, the linear equations of salt–nitrogen relation were determined and used to calculate the soil N under higher soil salinity (above the Sth) for maintaining cotton production. These findings produced a new perspective to determine threshold soil salinity and mitigate soil salt suppression by nitrogen management.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00271-021-00762-y/MediaObjects/271_2021_762_Fig7_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M (1998) Crop evapotranspiration−guidelines for computing crop water requirements−FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56, vol 300, issue 9. FAO, Rome, p D05109
Akça E, Aydin M, Kapur S, Kume T, Nagano T, Watanabe T, Çilek A, Zorlu K (2020) Long-term monitoring of soil salinity in a semi-arid environment of Turkey. CATENA 193:104614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104614
Akhtar M, Hussain F, Ashraf MY, Qureshi TM, Akhter J, Awan AR (2012) Influence of salinity on nitrogen transformations in soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant 43:1674–1683. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2012.681738
Bali KM, Eltarabily MG, Berndtsson R, Selim T (2021) Nutrient and salinity management for spinach production under sprinkler irrigation in the low desert region of California. Irrig Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-021-00740-4
Bless AE, Colin F, Crabit A, Devaux N, Philippon O, Follain S (2018) Landscape evolution and agricultural land salinization in coastal area: A conceptual model. Sci Total Environ 625:647–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.083
Che Z, Wang J, Li JS (2021) Effects of water quality, irrigation amount and nitrogen applied on soil salinity and cotton production under mulched drip irrigation in arid Northwest China. Agric Water Manag 247:106738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.106738
Chen WL, ** MG, Ferré Ty PA, Liu YF, **an Y, Shan TR, ** X (2018) Spatial distribution of soil moisture, soil salinity, and root density beneath a cotton field under mulched drip irrigation with brackish and fresh water. Field Crops Res 215:207–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2017.10.019
Dendooven L, Alcántara-Hernández R, Valenzuela-Encinas C, Luna-Guido M, Perez-Guevara F, Marsch R (2010) Dynamics of carbon and nitrogen in an extreme alkaline saline soil: a review. Soil Biol Biochem 42:865–877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.02.014
Espeleta JF, Cardon ZG, Mayer KU, Neumann RB (2017) Diel plant water use and competitive soil cation exchange interact to enhance NH4+ and K+ availability in the rhizosphere. Plant Soil 414:33–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-016-3089-5
FAO (2015) Extent of Salt-affected Soils. (Last Accessed 08 April 2019). http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-management/management-of-some-problem-soils/salt-affected-soils/more-information-on-salt-affected-soils/en/.
Feghhenabi F, Hadi H, Khodaverdiloo H, Van Genuchten MT (2021) Borage (Borago officinalis L.) response to salinity at early growth stages as influenced by seed pre-treatment. Agric Water Manag 253:106925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.106925
Han JP, Shi JC, Zeng LZ, Xu JM, Wu LS (2014) Effects of nitrogen fertilization on the acidity and salinity of greenhouse soils. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:2976–2986. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3542-z
Hessini K, Issaoui K, Ferchichi S, Saif T, Abdelly C, Siddique KHM, Cruz C (2019) Interactive effects of salinity and nitrogen forms on plant growth, photosynthesis and osmotic adjustment in maize. Plant Physiol Biochem 139:171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.03.005
Hu Y, Lindo-Atichati D (2019) Experimental equations of seawater salinity and desalination capacity to assess seawater irrigation. Sci Total Environ 651:807–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.221
Kazemeini SA, Pirasteh-anosheh H, Basirat A, Akram A (2018) Salinity tolerance threshold of berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) at different growth stages. Pak J Bot 50:1675−1680. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325868097.
Kourgialas NN, Koubouris GC, Dokou Z (2019) Optimal irrigation planning for addressing current or future water scarcity in Mediterranean tree crops. Sci Total Environ 654:616–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.118
Lakhdar A, Rabhi M, Ghnaya T, Montemurro F, Jedidi N, Abdelly C (2009) Effectiveness of compost use in salt-affected soil. J Hazard Mater 171:29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.132
Lin XM, Wang Z, Li JS (2021) Identifying the factors dominating the spatial distribution of water and salt in soil and cotton yield under arid environments of drip irrigation with different lateral lengths. Agric Water Manag 250:106834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.106834
Liu L, Yao S, Zhang HT, Muhammed A, Xu JX, Li RN, Zhang DJ, Zhang SL, Yang XY (2019) Soil nitrate nitrogen buffer capacity and environmentally safe nitrogen rate for winter wheat-summer maize crop** in Northern China. Agric Water Manag 213:445–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.11.001
Liu YQ, Wang HR, Jiang ZM, Wang W, Xu RN, Wang QH, Zhang ZH, Li AF, Liang Y, Qu SJ, Liu XJ, Cao SY, Tong HN, Wang YH, Zhou F, Liao H, Hu B, Chu CC (2021) Genomic basis of geographical adaptation to soil nitrogen in rice. Nature 590:600–605. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03091-w
Lu J, Wu J, Zhang C (2021) Cleaner production of salt-tolerance vegetable in coastal saline soils using reclaimed water irrigation: observations from alleviated accumulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals and environmental burden. J Clean Prod 297:126746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126746
Maas EV, Hoffman GJ (1977) Crop salt tolerance-current assessment. J Irrig Drain Div Am Soc Civ Eng 103:115–134. https://doi.org/10.1061/jrcea4.0001137
Minhas PS (1996) Saline water management in India. Agric Water Manage 30:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3774(95)01211-7
Munns R, Tester M (2008) Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Annu Rev Plant Biol 59:651–681. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092911
Ortiz AC, ** LX (2021) Chemical and hydrological controls on salt accumulation in irrigated soils of southwestern US. Geoderma 391:114976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.114976
Qadir M, Quillérou E, Nangia V, Murtaza G, Singh M, Thomas RJ, Drechsel P, Noble AD (2014) Economics of salt-induced land degradation and restoration. Nat Resour Forum 38:282–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12054
Ran H, Kang SZ, Li FS, Du TS, Tong L, Li SE, Ding RS, Zhang XT (2018) Parameterization of the AquaCrop model for full and deficit irrigated maize for seed production in arid Northwest China. Agric Water Manag 203:438–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.01.030
Reddy N, Crohn DM (2014) Effects of soil salinity and carbon availability from organic amendments on nitrous oxide emissions. Geoderma 235:363–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.07.022
Saeidi R, Etedali HR, Sotoodehnia A, Kaviani A, Nazari B (2021) Salinity and fertility stresses modify Ks and readily available water coefficients in maize (case study: Qazvin region). Irrig Sci 39:299–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-020-00711-1
Sahab S, Suhani I, Srivastava V, Chauhan PS, Singh RP, Prasad V (2021) Potential risk assessment of soil salinity to agroecosystem sustainability: current status and management strategies. Sci Total Environ 764:144164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144164
Siddiqui MH, Khan MN, Mohammad F, Khan MMA (2008) Role of nitrogen and gibberellin (GA3) in the regulation of enzyme activities and in osmoprotectant accumulation in Brassica juncea L. under salt stress. J Agron Crop Sci 194:214–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2008.00308.x
Šimůnek J, Hopmans JW (2009) Modeling compensated root water and nutrient uptake. Ecol Modell 220:505–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2008.11.004
Soare TM, Coelho FS, Oliverira VB, Pontes O, Pavinato PS (2020) Soil nitrogen dynamics under tobacco with different fertilizer management in southern Brazil. Geoderma Reg 21:e00282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2020.e00282
Sytar O, Brestic M, Zivcak M, Olsovska K, Kovar M, Shao HB, He XL (2017) Applying hyperspectral imaging to explore natural plant diversity towards improving salt stress tolerance. Sci Total Environ 578:90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.014
Tang ZH, Liu YJ, Guo XR, Zu YG (2011) The combined effects of salinity and nitrogen forms on Catharanthus roseus: the role of internal ammonium and free amino acids during salt stress. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 174:135–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200900354
Tavakoli-Kivi S, Bailey RT, Gates TK (2019) A salinity reactive transport and equilibrium chemistry model for regional-scale agricultural groundwater system. J Hydrol 572:274–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.02.040
Thompson RB, Tremblay N, Fink M, Gallardo M, Padilla FM (2017) Tools and strategies for sustainable nitrogen fertilisation of vegetable crops. In: Tei F, Nicola S, Benincasa P (eds) Advances in research on fertilization management in vegetable crops. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 11–63
Thompson RB, Padilla FM, Peña-Fleitas MT, Gallardo M (2020) Reducing nitrate leaching losses from vegetable production in Mediterranean greenhouses. Acta Hortic 1268:105–118. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2020.1268.14
Van Straten G, De Vos AC, Rozema J, Bruning B, Van Bodegom PM (2019) An improved methodology to evaluate crop salt tolerance from field trials. Agric Water Manag 213:375–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.09.008
Wang J, Huang GH, Zhan HB, Mohanty BP, Zheng JH, Huang QZ, Xu X (2014) Evaluation of soil water dynamics and crop yield under furrow irrigation with a two-dimensional flow and crop growth coupled model. Agric Water Manag 141:10–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.04.007
Wang D, Li GY, Mo Y, Cai MK, Bian XY (2018a) Evaluation of optimal nitrogen rate for corn production under mulched drip fertigation and economic benefits. Field Crops Res 216:225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2017.10.002
Wang HD, Wu LF, Cheng MH, Fan JL, Zhang FC, Zou HY, Chau HQ, Gao ZJ, Wang XK (2018b) Coupling effects of water and fertilizer on yield, water and fertilizer use efficiency of drip-fertigated cotton in northern **njiang, China. Field Crops Res 219:169–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2018.02.002
Wei CC, Ren SM, Yang PL, Wang Y, He X, Xu Z, Wei R, Wang SJ, Chi YB, Zhang MT (2021) Effects of irrigation methods and salinity on CO2 emissions from farmland soil during growth and fallow periods. Sci Total Environ 752:141639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141639
Wu H, Kang SZ, Li XJ, Guo P, Hu SJ (2020) Optimization−based water−salt dynamic threshold analysis of cotton root zone in arid areas. Water 12:2449. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12092449
Xu G, Magen H, Tarchitzky J, Kafkafi U (1999) Advances in chloride nutrition of plants. Adv Agron 68:97–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60844-5
Xu ZK, Shao TY, Lv ZX, Yang Y, Liu AH, Long XH, Zhou ZS, Gao XM, Rengel Z (2020) The mechanisms of improving coastal saline soils by planting rice. Sci Total Environ 703:135529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135529
Xue W, Li XY, Zeng FJ (2021) Inter-annual variations of seed cotton yield in relation to soil organic carbon and harvest index in reclaimed desertified land. Field Crops Res 272:108267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108267
Yang PJ, Hu HC, Tian FQ, Zhang Z, Dai C (2016) Crop coefficient for cotton under plastic mulch and drip irrigation based on eddy covariance observation in an arid area of northwestern China. Agric Water Manag 171:21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2016.03.007
Zeng WZ, Xu C, Wu JW, Huang JS, Zhao Q, Wu MS (2014) Impacts of salinity and nitrogen on the photosynthetic rate and growth of sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.). Pedosphere 24:635–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(14)60049-7
Zeng WZ, Xu C, Wu JW, Huang JS (2016) Sunflower seed yield estimation under the interaction of soil salinity and nitrogen application. Field Crop Res 198:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2016.08.007
Zhang DM, Li WJ, **n CS, Tang W, Eneji AE, Dong HZ (2012) Lint yield and nitrogen use efficiency of field−grown cotton vary with soil salinity and nitrogen application rate. Field Crops Res 138:63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.09.013
Zhu H, Yang JS, Yao RJ, Wang XP, **e WP, Zhu W, Liu XY, Cao YF, Tao JY (2020) Interactive effects of soil amendments (biochar and gypsum) and salinity on ammonia volatilization in coastal saline soil. CATENA 190:104527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104527
Zou HY, Fan JL, Zhang FC, **ang YZ, Wu LF, Yan SC (2020) Optimization of drip irrigation and fertilization regimes for high grain yield, crop water productivity and economic benefits of spring maize in Northwest China. Agric Water Manag 230:105986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105986
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant nos. 51790531 and 52179055), the Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin (SKL2020ZY07), the Science and Technology Program of **njiang Production and Construction Corps (Grant no. 2021DB012), and the Research & Development Support Program of China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (ID110145B0022021). We are grateful to Dr. Wenzhi Zeng of School of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, Wuhan University, China for his valuable suggestions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
ZC: field investigation, data analysis, data curation, and writing—original draft. JW: formal analysis, methodology, resources, conceptualization, data analysis, writing—review and editing, and internal scientific review. JL: supervision, funding acquisition, project administration, conceptualization, internal scientific review, and writing—review and editing.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Che, Z., Wang, J. & Li, J. Determination of threshold soil salinity with consideration of salinity stress alleviation by applying nitrogen in the arid region. Irrig Sci 40, 283–296 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-021-00762-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-021-00762-y