Neither Knowledge Deficit nor NIMBY: Understanding Opposition to Hydraulic Fracturing as a Nuanced Coalition in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania (USA)

Abstract

The expansion of unconventional sources of natural gas across the world has generated public controversy surrounding fracking drilling methods. Public debates continue to reverberate through policy domains despite very inconclusive biophysical evidence of net harm. As a consequence, there is a need to test the hypothesis that resistance to fracking is due to the way it redistributes economic and environmental risks. As in many other communities, opposition to fracking is common in central Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, (USA) but the rationale underpinning opposition is poorly understood. We test the prevailing assumption in the environmental management literature that fracking opposition is motivated by knowledge deficits and/or not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) politics. This study uses Q methodology to examine emergent perspectives and sub-discourses within the fracking opposition debate in central Westmoreland County, PA. Q methodology offers a systematic and iterative use of both quantitative and qualitative research techniques to explore frequently overlooked marginal viewpoints that are critical to understanding the fracking problem. The analysis reveals four different narratives of factors amongst people actively involved in locally opposing fracking, labeled (1) Future Fears; (2) NIMBY (3) Community Concerns; and (4) Distrust Stakeholders. The conflicts that emerge across these four factors are indicative of deeper discourse within the fracking debate that signifies diversity in motivations, values, and convictions, and suggests the inadequacy of relying on knowledge deficit and/or NIMBY explanations to fracking politics.

Appendix A: Crib Sheets

Appendix A Key: * = p < 0.01 # = p < 0.05 (statistical significance)

Factor 1	#	Statement	Rank
Most (+4)	2	Considering that the climate is already changing due to fossil fuel emissions, and that Pennsylvanians are increasingly feeling its effects, all fossil fuels need to stay in the ground.	+4
	3	Much of the contamination associated with fracking is irreversible.	+4
Items ranked higher than other factors	4#	We are putting radioactive waste in a bunch of landfills in large quantities, and we don’t yet know the long-term danger of doing this.	+3
	8#	Worrisome chemicals like bromide and salts often associated with waste water from fracking will seep into my drinking water.	+2
	11	Pennsylvania is “simply not doing” studies into the possible health impacts of fracking.	+2
	5	Foreclosure rates and abandonment levels increase in communities engaged in fracking.	0
	1*	My property cannot be mortgaged or insured if fracking occurs in my community.	0
	10	I feel that if I don’t sign leases to my mineral rights and properties, I will just get bundled in with those who do, to make drilling more efficient.	0
	27	I don’t trust the fracking companies; they tried to have me sign a legal liability release.	−2
Items ranked lower than other factors	18	Rules requiring fracking operators to manage their air pollution are few and far between.	0
	20	Fracking operations may result in increased erosion, altered chemical cycling, and reduced water levels.	−1
	23*	Fracking will increase traffic and lead to higher pollution levels.	−1
	29#	People living or working near active fracking wells may be exposed to certain pollutants at higher levels than the Environmental Protection Agency considers safe for lifetime exposure.	−1
	24	Fracking can’t be made sustainable; it’s an unsustainable energy source.	−2
	26	I am very fearful that nearby fracking will erode the value of my property.	−3
	30	I am worried about the community impacts of fracking and the increased local demand for housing and medical care.	−3
Least (−4)	13	The location of the fracking site is absolutely the most critical variable to my opposition.	−4
	25*	Fracking operations should be confined to industrial or already built up areas, like near power stations.	−4
Other distinguishing statements	22#	The whole planet is affected by the climate change induced by fracking.	+1
	15*	Crime and social disagreement between residents will become worse if fracking enters my community.	−1
	28#	The real solution is to ditch fossil fuels entirely.	−3
	9	People who live near fracking are at increased risk of health problems ranging from birth defects to cancer.	+3
	6	Greed and economic hardship have blinded many from seeing the real price we will all be paying if fracking takes over.	+3

Factor 2	#	Statement
Most (+4)	9	People who live near fracking are at increased risk of health problems ranging from birth defects to cancer.	+4
	13*	The location of the fracking site is absolutely the most critical variable to my opposition.	+4
Items ranked higher than other factors	14	Waste coming from fracking sites are highly radioactive and cancer rates have tripled in fracking areas.	+3
	29	People living or working near active fracking wells may be exposed to certain pollutants at higher levels than the Environmental Protection Agency considers safe for lifetime exposure.	+3
	18	Rules requiring fracking operators to manage their air pollution are few and far between.	+2
	26	I am very fearful that nearby fracking will erode the value of my property.	0
Items ranked lower than other factors	5	Foreclosure rates and abandonment levels increase in communities engaged in fracking.	−1
	11	Pennsylvania is “simply not doing” studies into the possible health impacts of fracking.	−1
	19	Fracking poses a huge threat to ecosystems.	−1
	17*	Fracking is subsidized by the government in far greater amounts than renewable fuels, which is where we should be focusing our money.	−2
	24	Fracking can’t be made sustainable; it’s an unsustainable energy source.	−2
	1	My property cannot be mortgaged or insured if fracking occurs in my community.	−3
	2*	Considering that the climate is already changing due to fossil fuel emissions, and that Pennsylvanians are increasingly feeling its effects, all fossil fuels need to stay in the ground.	−3
Least (−4)	21	The fracking boom that began in Pennsylvania around 2008 has not generated enough jobs or money to make fracking worth it.	−4
	28*	The real solution is to ditch fossil fuels entirely.	−4
Other distinguishing statements	6*	Greed and economic hardship have blinded many from seeing the real price we will all be paying if fracking takes over.	+1
	25	Fracking operations should be confined to industrial or already built up areas, like near power stations.	+3
	22	The whole planet is affected by the climate change induced by fracking.	−2
	7	All fracking companies should be using some form of identification to reveal the precise chemical formulation they are pum** into the ground.	+2

Factor 3 (+)	#	Statement	Rank
Most (+4)	2	Considering that the climate is already changing due to fossil fuel emissions, and that Pennsylvanians are increasingly feeling its effects, all fossil fuels need to stay in the ground.	+4
	25	Fracking operations should be confined to industrial or already built up areas, like near power stations.	+4
Items ranked higher than other factors	15	Crime and social disagreement between residents will become worse if fracking enters my community.	+3
	28*	The real solution is to ditch fossil fuels entirely.	+3
	11	Pennsylvania is “simply not doing” studies into the possible health impacts of fracking.	+2
	30	I am worried about the community impacts of fracking and the increased local demand for housing and medical care.	+2
	23	Fracking will increase traffic and lead to higher pollution levels.	+1
	26	I am very fearful that nearby fracking will erode the value of my property.	0
Items ranked lower than other factors	4	We are putting radioactive waste in a bunch of landfills in large quantities, and we don’t yet know the long-term danger of doing this.	+1
	9#	People who live near fracking are at increased risk of health problems ranging from birth defects to cancer.	+1
	7	All fracking companies should be using some form of identification to reveal the precise chemical formulation they are pum** into the ground.	0
	5	Foreclosure rates and abandonment levels increase in communities engaged in fracking.	−1
	6*	Greed and economic hardship have blinded many from seeing the real price we will all be paying if fracking takes over.	−2
	8#	Worrisome chemicals like bromide and salts often associated with waste water from fracking will seep into my drinking water.	−2
	12#	The fracking industry is learning their “craft” as they go and using my community as guinea pigs.	−2
	1	My property cannot be mortgaged or insured if fracking occurs in my community.	−3
	10	I feel that if I don’t sign leases to my mineral rights and properties, I will just get bundled in with those who do, to make drilling more efficient.	−3
	16*	The consistently high levels of fracking investment in political contributions and lobbying should worry all Pennsylvanians.	−3
	19	Fracking poses a huge threat to ecosystems.	−3
Least (−4)	22	The whole planet is affected by the climate change induced by fracking.	−4
	27	I don’t trust the fracking companies; they tried to have me sign a legal liability release.	−4
Other distinguishing statements	24#	Fracking can’t be made sustainable; it’s an unsustainable energy source.	0
	13*	The location of the fracking site is absolutely the most critical variable to my opposition.	0
	3	Much of the contamination associated with fracking is irreversible.	+3

Factor 3 (-)	#	Statement
Most (+4)	22	The whole planet is affected by the climate change induced by fracking.	+4
	27	I don’t trust the fracking companies; they tried to have me sign a legal liability release.	+4
Items ranked higher than other factors	1	My property cannot be mortgaged or insured if fracking occurs in my community.	+3
	10	I feel that if I don’t sign leases to my mineral rights and properties, I will just get bundled in with those who do, to make drilling more efficient.	+3
	16	The consistently high levels of fracking investment in political contributions and lobbying should worry all Pennsylvanians.	+3
	8	Worrisome chemicals like bromide and salts often associated with waste water from fracking will seep into my drinking water.	+2
	12	The fracking industry is learning their “craft” as they go and using my community as guinea pigs.	+2
	5	Foreclosure rates and abandonment levels increase in communities engaged in fracking.	+1
	20	Fracking operations may result in increased erosion, altered chemical cycling, and reduced water levels.	+1
	21	The fracking boom that began in Pennsylvania around 2008 has not generated enough jobs or money to make fracking worth it.	+1
Items ranked lower than other factors	3	Much of the contamination associated with fracking is irreversible.	−3
	15	Crime and social disagreement between residents will become worse if fracking enters my community.	−3
	11	Pennsylvania is “simply not doing” studies into the possible health impacts of fracking.	−2
	29	People living or working near active fracking wells may be exposed to certain pollutants at higher levels than the Environmental Protection Agency considers safe for lifetime exposure.	−2
	4	We are putting radioactive waste in a bunch of landfills in large quantities, and we don’t yet know the long-term danger of doing this.	−1
	9	People who live near fracking are at increased risk of health problems ranging from birth defects to cancer.	−1
	18	Rules requiring fracking operators to manage their air pollution are few and far between.	−1
	23	Fracking will increase traffic and lead to higher pollution levels.	−1
	7	All fracking companies should be using some form of identification to reveal the precise chemical formulation they are pum** into the ground.	0
Least (−4)	2	Considering that the climate is already changing due to fossil fuel emissions, and that Pennsylvanians are increasingly feeling its effects, all fossil fuels need to stay in the ground.	−4
	25	Fracking operations should be confined to industrial or already built up areas, like near power stations.	−4

Factor 4	#	Statement	Rank
Most (+4)	6	Greed and economic hardship have blinded many from seeing the real price we will all be paying if fracking takes over.	+4
	9	People who live near fracking are at increased risk of health problems ranging from birth defects to cancer.	+4
Items ranked higher than other factors	7	All fracking companies should be using some form of identification to reveal the precise chemical formulation they are pum** into the ground.	+3
	19*	Fracking poses a huge threat to ecosystems.	+3
	24#	Fracking can’t be made sustainable; it’s an unsustainable energy source.	+3
	12	The fracking industry is learning their “craft” as they go and using my community as guinea pigs.	+2
	16	The consistently high levels of fracking investment in political contributions and lobbying should worry all Pennsylvanians.	+2
	22#	The whole planet is affected by the climate change induced by fracking.	+2
	17	Fracking is subsidized by the government in far greater amounts than renewable fuels, which is where we should be focusing our money.	+1
	20#	Fracking operations may result in increased erosion, altered chemical cycling, and reduced water levels.	+1
	21	The fracking boom that began in Pennsylvania around 2008 has not generated enough jobs or money to make fracking worth it.	0
Items ranked lower than other factors	4	We are putting radioactive waste in a bunch of landfills in large quantities, and we don’t yet know the long-term danger of doing this.	+1
	3	Much of the contamination associated with fracking is irreversible.	0
	18	Rules requiring fracking operators to manage their air pollution are few and far between.	0
	5	Foreclosure rates and abandonment levels increase in communities engaged in fracking.	−1
	11	Pennsylvania is “simply not doing” studies into the possible health impacts of fracking.	−1
	14#	Waste coming from fracking sites are highly radioactive and cancer rates have tripled in fracking areas.	−2
	1	My property cannot be mortgaged or insured if fracking occurs in my community.	−3
	10	I feel that if I don’t sign leases to my mineral rights and properties, I will just get bundled in with those who do, to make drilling more efficient.	−3
	15*	Crime and social disagreement between residents will become worse if fracking enters my community.	−3
Least (−4)	13	The location of the fracking site is absolutely the most critical variable to my opposition.	−4
	27	I don’t trust the fracking companies; they tried to have me sign a legal liability release.	−4
Other distinguishing statements	2#	Considering that the climate is already changing due to fossil fuel emissions, and that Pennsylvanians are increasingly feeling its effects, all fossil fuels need to stay in the ground.	+1
	28#	The real solution is to ditch fossil fuels entirely.	−1