Abstract
An identity is to convey who one is and to whom one belongs. In the formation of the European Community and the European Union, questions of identity have always been a crucial issue. While it is certainly possible to support the European Union without having a European identity, the creation of a cohesive force in supranational and international relations necessitates a shared sense of community. This chapter analyzes how much self-concepts differ among Europeans and in comparison to non-Europeans. It gives an overview of public opinion concerning important EU issues and describes how Europeans feel about Europe and the European Union. It then presents an explanation how individual characteristics, attitudes, and self-concepts inform their attitudes toward Europe and European integration. The chapter shows that important prerequisites for constructing a European identity are not in place. The EU commands little loyalty in its own right. Affective affinity to an abstract idea of Europe is widespread but is too general to provide a collective self-description. As a consequence, people’s willingness to show solidarity throughout Europe and to accepting re-distribution policies can be expected to stay fragile.
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Notes
- 1.
Here used synonymously with the terms collective or group identity although one could distinguish between the two whereby social identity still would be an individual property based on the ascriptions of significant others, and collective identity as a group property denoting symbolic borders on the basis of believed commonalities.
- 2.
This is done through different kinds of survey interviews (Eurobarometer) and selective qualitative studies (see http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/communication/index_en.htm). It seems reasonable to note that by means of these instruments and through a selective presentation of results, the European Commission is not only measuring public opinion in the Member States but is also trying to influence it. The questions are set by the directorate-general, and it seems that question series which lend themselves to EU-unfriendly interpretations suffer a shorter life than questions which offer EU-friendly conclusions. Identity questions in particular have been changed suspiciously often.
- 3.
- 4.
Not displayed in Fig. 11.3 (see footnote 6 for explanation).
- 5.
EU funds obviously comprise only part of the advantages of being member of the EU. Moreover, this explanation supposes that people have a fair idea of their country position with regard to the EU finance systems.
- 6.
With the exemption of Luxembourg, where one-sixth of all respondents see themselves as first Europeans. Luxembourg has by far the largest proportion of employees working for a European institution.
- 7.
Again, there are no big differences between the old and the new EU countries of 2004. The New Member States were only asked without the possibility of being able to give the “European and (nationality)” response. In this question format, the number of citizens who consider themselves as nationals only was 48% compared to a 45% average for the EU 15 (EB61 and CCEB 2004.1, spring 2004).
- 8.
- 9.
Experimental support for this proposition is provided by Sanchez-Mazas (1996).
- 10.
See Flash Eurobarometer 202 in 2007 (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_202_en.pdf; 15/06/2007) and Optem (2006).
- 11.
According to EB64.3 (“Europeans and their languages,” 11-12/2005), English is by far the most learned language in the EU with 38% of the respondents speaking it as a foreign language, followed by German and French with 14% each.
- 12.
The perceptions about a unified Europe even differ regionally within nation-states (Opp 2005).
- 13.
Our analysis is based on Eurobarometer 54.1 from Fall 2000 covering EU15. We used a slightly modified approach from the one suggested by Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks (Hooghe and Marks 2004, 2005). The idea was to combine economic, identity, and partisan factors into one model. The variation of the dependent variable (= support for European integration) is probed at the individual level, taking all independent variables into account and controlling for country differences. Detailed variable descriptions and statistics can be found on the first author’s homepage at http://www.ph-gmuend.de/deutsch/lehrende-a-z/i/immerfall-stefan.php?navanchor=.
- 14.
Fuss and Grosser (2006) find this relationship to be true at a very young age which supports the idea that European personal experiences such as traveling and studying abroad are linked to positive identification with Europe via personal resources.
- 15.
Declaration on European Identity, Bulletin of the European Communities. December 1973, No 12, pp. 118–122.
- 16.
- 17.
Because education is politically highly sensitive, the EU has long promoted mobility-enhancing policies over curricular reforms (Theiler 2005). Nevertheless the Commission has gained ground in educational affairs by linking the Bologna process of educational reforms to the Lisbon strategy of upgrading Europe’s competitiveness (Immerfall 2006b).
- 18.
Histoire de l’Europe. Une initiative européenne de Frédéric Delouche, Paris: Hachette Education, 2ème édition, 1997.
- 19.
As one German official pointed out, “this book did not fit German didactic standards” (Communication of Sep 25, 2007).
- 20.
Histoire/Geschichte − L’Europe et le monde depuis 1945/Europa und die Welt seit 1945. Éditions Nathan, Paris/Leipzig: Ernst Klett Schulbuchverlag 2006.
- 21.
“EU ministers discuss joint history text,” UPI of March 2.
- 22.
Cf. Heribert Seifert, Unerfüllte Sehnsucht nach Europa, in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung, December 7, 2007.
- 23.
Examples of which are signandsight.com, eurozine.com, cafebabel.com, and eurotopics.net.
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Immerfall, S., Boehnke, K., Baier, D. (2010). Identity. In: Immerfall, S., Therborn, G. (eds) Handbook of European Societies. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88199-7_11
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