SpringerLink
Log in

Urbanization and Raptors: Trends and Research Approaches

  • Chapter
Urban Raptors

Abstract

Urbanization presents a major global issue for the conservation and survival of many different species. With the increasing footprint of cities and intensification of our use of urban areas, wildlife faces extremely difficult challenges to live there. Understanding how species respond to urban processes and how to design urban landscapes that facilitate species’ presences are major emerging research and management priorities. Despite general negative responses to increasing urbanization, some animal taxa, both native and introduced, appear to benefit from urban environments by capitalizing on novel environments and abundant resources.1 Those that are common in urban systems display particular physical characteristics and ecological traits.2,3,4 They also frequently display a level of behavioral plasticity or tolerance, adjusting their behavior to interact with, and survive in, urban environments.5,6 Termed urban-adaptors,7 these species may exhibit altered spatial,8,9,10 foraging,11,12 and breeding behaviors,13 as detailed in chapter 2.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Literature Cited

  1. McKinney, M. L. 2002. “Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation.” BioScience 52:883–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Møller, A. P. 2009. “Successful City Dwellers: A Comparative Study of the Ecological Characteristics of Urban Birds in the Western Palearctic.” Oecologia 159:849–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Prange, S., and S. D. Gehrt. 2004. “Changes in Mesopredator-Community Structure in Response to Urbanization.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 82:1804–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Kark, S., A. Iwaniuk, A. Schalimtzek, and E. Banker. 2007. “Living in the City: Can Anyone Become an ‘Urban Exploiter’?” Journal of Biogeography 34:638–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Sol, D., O. Lapiedra, and C. González-Lagos. 2013. “Behavioural Adjustments for a Life in the City.” Animal Behaviour 85:1101–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Lizée, M.-H., J.-F. Mauffrey, T. Tatoni, and M. Deschamps-Cottin. 2011. “Monitoring Urban Environments on the Basis of Biological Traits.” Ecological Indicators 11:353–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. McKinney, M. L. 2006. “Urbanization as a Major Cause of Biotic Homogenization.” Biological Conservation 127:247–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Gese, E., P. Morey, and S. Gehrt. 2012. “Influence of the Urban Matrix on Space Use of Coyotes in the Chicago Metropolitan Area.” Journal of Ethology 30:413–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Hodgson, P., K. French, and R. E. Major. 2007. “Avian Movement across Abrupt Ecological Edges: Differential Responses to Housing Density in an Urban Matrix.” Landscape and Urban Planning 79:266–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Dowding, C. V., S. Harris, S. Poulton, and P. J. Baker. 2010. “Nocturnal Ranging Behaviour of Urban Hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus, in Relation to Risk and Reward.” Animal Behaviour 80:13–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Gehlbach, F. R. 2012. “Eastern Screech-Owl Responses to Suburban Sprawl, Warmer Climate, and Additional Avian Food in Central Texas.” Wilson Journal of Ornithology 124:630–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Prange S., S. D. Gehrt, and E. P. Wiggers. 2004. “Influences of Anthropogenic Resources on Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Movements and Spatial Distribution.” Journal of Mammalogy 85:483–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Chamberlain, D. E., A. R. Cannon, M. P. Toms, D. I. Leech, B. J. Hatchwell, and K. J. Gaston. 2009. “Avian Productivity in Urban Landscapes: A Review and Meta-Analysis.” Ibis 151:1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Bildstein, K. L., W. Schelsky, J. Zales, and S. Ellis. 1998. “Conservation Status of Tropical Raptors.” Journal of Raptor Research 32:3–18.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Thiollay, J.-M. 2006. “The Decline of Raptors in West Africa: Long-Term Assessment and the Role of Protected Areas.” Ibis 148:240–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Ferrer-Sánchez, Y., and R. Rodríguez-Estrella. 2015. “Man-Made Environments Relationships with Island Raptors: Endemics Do Not Cope with Habitat Changes, the Case of the Island of Cuba.” Biodiversity and Conservation 24:407–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Rullman, S., and J. M. Marzluff. 2014. “Raptor Presence along an Urban–Wildland Gradient: Influences of Prey Abundance and Land Cover.” Journal of Raptor Research 48:257–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Bloom, P. H., and M. D. McCrary. 1996. “The Urban Buteo: Red-Shouldered Hawks in Southern California.” In Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to Built and Cultivated Environments, edited by D. Bird, D. Varland, and J. J. Negro, 31–39. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Boal, C. W., and R. W. Mannan. 1999. “Comparative Breeding Ecology of Cooper’s Hawks in Urban and Exurban Areas of Southeastern Arizona.” Journal of Wildlife Management 63:77–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Botelho, E. S., and P. C. Arrowood. 1996. “Nesting Success of Western Burrowing Owls in Natural and Human-Altered Environments.” In Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to Built and Cultivated Environments, edited by D. Bird, D. Varland, and J. J. Negro, 61–68. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Caballero, I. C., J. M. Bates, M. Hennen, and M. V. Ashley. 2016. “Sex in the City: Breeding Behavior of Urban Peregrine Falcons in the Midwestern US.” PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159054. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159054.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Cooke, R., R. Wallis, and A. Webster. 2002. “Urbanization and the Ecology of Powerful Owls (Ninox strenua) in Outer Melbourne, Victoria.” In Ecology and Conservation of Owls, edited by I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor, 100–106. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Rutz, C. 2006. “Home Range Size, Habitat Use, Activity Patterns and Hunting Behaviour of Urban-Breeding Northern Goshawks. Accipiter gentilis.” Ardea 94:185–202.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Chace, J. F., and J. J. Walsh. 2006. “Urban Effects on Native Avifauna: A Review.” Landscape and Urban Planning 74:46–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Gehlbach, F. R. 1996. “Eastern Screech Owls in Suburbia: A Model of Raptor Urbanization.” In Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to Built and Cultivated Environments, edited by D. M. Bird, D. E. Varland, and J. J. Negro, 69–74. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Green, R. 1984. “Native and Exotic Birds in a Suburban Habitat.” Wildlife Research 11:181–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Savard, J. P. L., P. Clergeau, and G. Mennechez. 2000. “Biodiversity Concepts and Urban Ecosystems.” Landscape and Urban Planning 48:131–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Sandström, U. G., P. Angelstam, and G. Mikusiński. 2006. “Ecological Diversity of Birds in Relation to the Structure of Urban Green Space.” Landscape and Urban Planning 77:39–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Morrison, J. L., I. G. W. Gottlieb, and K. E. Pias. 2016. “Spatial Distribution and the Value of Green Spaces for Urban Red-Tailed Hawks.” Urban Ecosystems 19:1373–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Boal, C. W., and R. W. Mannan. 1998. “Nest-Site Selection by Cooper’s Hawks in an Urban Environment.” Journal of Wildlife Management 62:864–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Sumasgutner, P., E. Nemeth, G. Tebb, H. W. Krenn, and A. Gamauf. 2014. “Hard Times in the City—Attractive Nest Sites but Insufficient Food Supply Lead to Low Reproduction Rates in a Bird of Prey.” Frontiers in Zoology 11:48.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Bennett, J. R., and P. H. Bloom. 2005. “Home Range and Habitat Use by Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus) in Southern California.” Journal of Raptor Research 39:119–26.

    Google Scholar 

  33. De Giacomo, U., and G. Guerrieri. 2008. “The Feeding Behavior of the Black Kite (Milvus migrans) in the Rubbish Dump of Rome.” Journal of Raptor Research 42:110–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Dykstra, C. R., M. M. Simon, F. B. Daniel, and J. L. Hays. 2012. “Habitats of Suburban Barred Owls (Strix varia) and Red-Shouldered Hawks (Buteo lineatus) in Southwestern Ohio.” Journal of Raptor Research 46:190–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Sodhi, N. S., and L. W. Oliphant. 1992. “Hunting Ranges and Habitat Use and Selection of Urban-Breeding Merlins.” Condor 94:743–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Hindmarch, S., and J. E. Elliott. 2015. “A Specialist in the City: The Diet of Barn Owls along a Rural to Urban Gradient.” Urban Ecosystems 18:477–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Domenech, R., B. E. Bedrosian, R. H. Crandall, and V. A. Slabe. 2015. “Space Use and Habitat Selection by Adult Migrant Golden Eagles Wintering in the Western United States.” Journal of Raptor Research 49:429–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Bosakowski, T., and D. G. Smith. 1997. “Distribution and Species Richness of a Forest Raptor Community in Relation to Urbanization.” Journal of Raptor Research 31:26–33.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Dykstra, C. R., J. L. Hays, F. B. Daniel, and M. M. Simon. 2000. “Nest Site Selection and Productivity of Suburban Red-Shouldered Hawks in Southern Ohio.” Condor 102:401–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Skipper, B. R. 2013. “Urban Ecology of Mississippi Kites.” PhD diss., Texas Tech University.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Martell, M. S., J. V. Englund, and H. B. Tordoff. 2002. “An Urban Osprey Population Established by Translocation.” Journal of Raptor Research 36:91–96.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Stout, W. E., R. K. Anderson, and J. M. Papp. 1996. “Red-Tailed Hawks Nesting on Human-Made and Natural Structures in Southeast Wisconsin.” In Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to Built and Cultivated Environments, edited by D. Bird, D. Varland, and J. J. Negro, 77–86. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Lövy, M., and J. Riegert. 2013. “Home Range and Land Use of Urban Long-Eared Owls.” Condor 115:551–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Smith, D. G., T. Bosakowski, and A. Devine. 1999. “Nest Site Selection by Urban and Rural Great Horned Owls in the Northeast.” Journal of Field Ornithology 70:535–42.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Warkentin, I. G., and P. C. James. 1988. “Nest-Site Selection by Urban Merlins.” Condor 90:734–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Charter, M., I. Izhaki, A. Bouskila, Y. Leshem, and V. Penteriani. 2007. “Breeding Success of the Eurasian Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) Nesting on Buildings in Israel.” Journal of Raptor Research 41:139–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Solonen, T. 2008. “Larger Broods in the Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis near Urban Areas in Southern Finland.” Ornis Fennica 85:118–25.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Hindmarch, S., E. A. Krebs, J. Elliott, and D. J. Green. 2014. “Urban Development Reduces Fledging Success of Barn Owls in British Columbia, Canada.” Condor 116:507–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Boal, C. W., R. W. Mannan, and K. S. Hudelson. 1998. “Trichomoniasis in Cooper’s Hawks from Arizona.” Journal of Wildlife Diseases 34:590–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Miller, S. J., C. R. Dykstra, M. M. Simon, J. L. Hays, and J. C. Bednarz. 2015. “Causes of Mortality and Failure at Suburban Red-Shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus) Nests.” Journal of Raptor Research 49:152–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. DeCandido, R., and D. Allen. 2006. “Nocturnal Hunting by Peregrine Falcons at the Empire State Building, New York City.” Wilson Journal of Ornithology 118:53–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Negro, J. J., J. Bustamante, C. Melguizo, J. L. Ruiz, and J. M. Grande. 2000. “Nocturnal Activity of Lesser Kestrels under Artificial Lighting Conditions in Seville, Spain.” Journal of Raptor Research 34:327–29.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Boggie, M. A., and R. W. Mannan. 2014. “Examining Seasonal Patterns of Space Use to Gauge How an Accipiter Responds to Urbanization.” Landscape and Urban Planning 124:34–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Roth, T. C., II., and S. L. Lima. 2003. “Hunting Behavior and Diet of Cooper’s Hawks: An Urban View of the Small-Bird-in-Winter Paradigm.” Condor 105:474–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Stout, W. E., and R. N. Rosenfield. 2010. “Colonization, Growth, and Density of a Pioneer Cooper’s Hawk Population in a Large Metropolitan Environment.” Journal of Raptor Research 44:255–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Stout, W. E., S. A. Temple, and J. M. Papp. 2006. “Landscape Correlates of Reproductive Success for an Urban-Suburban Red-Tailed Hawk Population.” Journal of Wildlife Management 70:989–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Cade, T. J., M. Martell, P. Redig, G. Septon, and H. Tordoff. 1996. “Peregrine Falcons in Urban North America.” In Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to Built and Cultivated Environments, edited by D. Bird, D. Varland, and J. J. Negro, 3–13. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Millsap, B., T. I. M. Breen, E. McConnell, T. Steffer, L. Phillips, N. Douglass, S. Taylor, and C. W. Boal. 2004. “Comparative Fecundity and Survival of Bald Eagles Fledged from Suburban and Rural Natal Areas in Florida.” Journal of Wildlife Management 68:1018–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Livezey, K. B. 2007. “Barred Owl Habitat and Prey: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature.” Journal of Raptor Research 41:177–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Strasser, E. H., and J. A. Heath. 2013. “Reproductive Failure of a Human-Tolerant Species, the American Kestrel, Is Associated with Stress and Human Disturbance.” Journal of Applied Ecology 50:912–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Nagy, C. M., and R. F. Rockwell. 2013. “Occupancy Patterns of Megascops asio in Urban Parks of New York City and Southern Westchester County, NY, USA.” Journal of Natural History 47:2135–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Beissinger, S. R., and D. R. Osborne. 1982. “Effects of Urbanization on Avian Community Organization.” Condor 84:75–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Crooks, K. R., A. V. Suarez, and D. T. Bolger. 2004. “Avian Assemblages along a Gradient of Urbanization in a Highly Fragmented Landscape.” Biological Conservation 115:451–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Sol, D., C. González-Lagos, D. Moreira, J. Maspons, and O. Lapiedra. 2014. “Urbanisation Tolerance and the Loss of Avian Diversity.” Ecology Letters 17:942–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Isaac, B., J. White, D. Ierodiaconou, and R. Cooke. 2013. “Response of a Cryptic Apex Predator to a Complete Urban to Forest Gradient.” Wildlife Research 40:427–36.

    Google Scholar 

  66. McGarigal, K., S. A. Cushman, and E. Ene. 2012. FRAGSTATS v4: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical and Continuous Maps. Amherst: University of Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Beyer, H. L. 2012. Geospatial Modelling Environment. 0.7.1.0 ed. Accessed April 28, 2017. http://www.spatialecology.com/gme%3e.

    Google Scholar 

  68. ESRI. 2011. ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10. Redlands: Environmental Systems Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Boggie, M. A., R. W. Mannan, and C. Wissler. 2015. “Perennial Pair Bonds in an Accipiter: A Behavioral Response to an Urbanized Landscape?” Journal of Raptor Research 49:458–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Isaac, B., R. Cooke, D. Simmons, and F. Hogan. 2008. “Predictive Map** of Powerful Owl (Ninox strenua) Breeding Sites Using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in Urban Melbourne, Australia.” Landscape and Urban Planning 84:212–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Vidal-Mateo, J., U. Mellone, P. López-López, J. De La Puente, C. García-Ripollés, A. Bermejo, and V. Urios. 2016. “Wind Effects on the Migration Routes of Trans-Saharan Soaring Raptors: Geographical, Seasonal, and Interspecific Variation.” Current Zoology 62:89–97.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Guisan, A., and N. E. Zimmermann. 2000. “Predictive Habitat Distribution Models in Ecology.” Ecological Modelling 135:147–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Miller, J. 2010. “Species Distribution Modeling.” Geography Compass 4:490–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Jepsen, E. P. B., J. J. Keane, and H. B. Ernest. 2011. “Winter Distribution and Conservation Status of the Sierra Nevada Great Gray Owl.” Journal of Wildlife Management 75:1678–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Hogan, F. E., R. Cooke, C. P. Burridge, and J. A. Norman. 2008. “Optimizing the Use of Shed Feathers for Genetic Analysis.” Molecular Ecology Resources 8:561–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Endler, J. 1977. Geographic Variation, Speciation and Clines. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Van Den Bussche, R. A., S. A. Harmon, R. J. Baker, A. L. Bryan, J. A. Rodgers, M. J. Harris, and I. L. Brisbin. 1999. “Low Levels of Genetic Variability in North American Populations of the Wood Stork (Mycteria americana).” Auk 116:1083–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Rodríguez-Muñoz, R., P. M. Mirol, G. Segelbacher, A. Fernández, and T. Tregenza. 2007. “Genetic Differentiation of an Endangered Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) Population at the Southern Edge of the Species Range.” Conservation Genetics 8:659–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Alcaide, M., J. J. Negro, D. Serrano, J. L. Tella, and C. Rodríguez. 2005. “Extra-Pair Paternity in the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni: A Re-Evaluation Using Microsatellite Markers.” Ibis 147:608–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Rodríguez-Martínez, S., M. Carrete, S. Roques, N. Rebolo-Ifrán, and J. L. Tella. 2014. “High Urban Breeding Densities Do Not Disrupt Genetic Monogamy in a Bird Species.” PLoS ONE 9: e91314.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Müller, W., J. Epplen, and T. Lubjuhn. 2001. “Genetic Paternity Analyses in Little Owls (Athene noctua): Does the High Rate of Paternal Care Select against Extra-Pair Young?” Journal für Ornithologie 142:195–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Rosenfield, R. N., T. G. Driscoll, R. P. Franckowiak, L. J. Rosenfield, B. L. Sloss, M. A. Bozek, and J. R. Belthoff. 2007. “Genetic Analysis Confirms First Record of Polygyny in Cooper’s Hawks.” Journal of Raptor Research 41:230–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Rosenfield, R. N., S. A. Sonsthagen, W. E. Stout, and S. L. Talbot. 2015. “High Frequency of Extra-Pair Paternity in an Urban Population of Cooper’s Hawks.” Journal of Field Ornithology 86:144–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Hogan, F. E., and R. Cooke. 2010. “Insights into the Breeding Behaviour and Dispersal of the Powerful Owl (Ninox strenua) through the Collection of Shed Feathers.” Emu 110:178–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Tang, G. S. Y., K. R. Sadanandan, and F. E. Rheindt. 2016. “Population Genetics of the Olive-Winged Bulbul (Pycnonotus plumosus) in a Tropical Urban-Fragmented Landscape.” Ecology and Evolution 6:78–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Sacks, B. N., J. L. Brazeal, and J. C. Lewis. 2016. “Landscape Genetics of the Nonnative Red Fox of California.” Ecology and Evolution 6:4775–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. McRae, B. H., B. G. Dickson, T. H. Keitt, and V. B. Shah. 2008. “Using Circuit Theory to Model Connectivity in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation.” Ecology 89:2712–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Garcia, J. T., F. Alda, J. Terraube, F. Mougeot, A. Sternalski, V. Bretagnolle, and B. Arroyo. 2011. “Demographic History, Genetic Structure and Gene Flow in a Steppe-Associated Raptor Species.” BMC Evolutionary Biology 11:333.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Hull, J. M., A. C. Hull, B. N. Sacks, J. P. Smith, and H. B. Ernest. 2008. “Landscape Characteristics Influence Morphological and Genetic Differentiation in a Widespread Raptor (Buteo jamaicensis).” Molecular Ecology 17:810–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Barrowclough, G. F., J. G. Groth, L. A. Mertz, and R. J. Gutiérrez. 2006. “Genetic Structure of Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) Populations in a Fragmented Landscape.” Auk 123:1090–102.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Bradsworth, N., J. G. White, B. Isaac, and R. Cooke. 2017. “Species Distribution Models Derived from Citizen Science Data Predict the Fine Scale Movements of Owls in an Urbanizing Landscape.” Biological Conservation 213:27–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Raylene Cooke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fiona Hogan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bronwyn Isaac
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marian Weaving
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. John G. White
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Natural Resources Management, Texas Tech University, 15th and Boston, 79409-2120, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Clint W. Boal

  2. Susan Springs Dr 7280, 45069-3696, West Chester, OH, USA

    Cheryl R. Dykstra

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Cheryl R. Dykstra

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cooke, R., Hogan, F., Isaac, B., Weaving, M., White, J.G. (2018). Urbanization and Raptors: Trends and Research Approaches. In: Boal, C.W., Dykstra, C.R. (eds) Urban Raptors. Island Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-841-1_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation