Abstract
The FRG’s behaviour towards Portugal was not only dictated by international factors, but also crucially by corresponding domestic pressures. Moving from the edges of public discourse to the mainstream, this chapter examines the challenge posed to Bonn by national agents outside the three largest parties in the executive and legislative bodies. It provides a snapshot of the social atmosphere in which Brandt governments made their policy towards the Caetano dictatorship.
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Notes
W. D. Graf (1976) The German Left since 1945 (Cambridge: The Oleander Press), pp. 257–64.
In their retrospective account, activists Kössler and Melber point to episodes earlier in the decade, namely the Algerian war and the Congo crisis, as having fuelled a critical perspective regarding Western colonial and neo-colonial practices. They highlight the importance of the call by PAIGC leader Amílcar Cabral for Europeans to assist African liberation by ‘fighting capitalist structures in their own countries’. See R. Kössler, H. Melber (2002) ‘The West German Solidarity Movement with the Liberation Struggles in Southern Africa: A (self-)critical retrospective’, in U. Engel and R. Kappel (eds) Germany’s Africa Policy Revisited: Interests, Images and Incrementalism (Münster: LIT), pp. 104–5.
R. Dutschke (1968) ‘Die geschichtlichen Bedingungen für den internationalen Emanzipationskampf’, in SDS-Westberlin, Internationales Nachrichten und Forschungsinstitut (eds) Der Kampf des vietnamesischen Volkes und die Globalstrategie des Imperialismus. Internationaler Vietnam-Kongress (Berlin: Peter von Maikowski), pp. 114–16.
K. Middlemas (1975) Cabora Bassa — Engineering and Politics in Southern Africa (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson), pp. 167–8;
J. Verber (2010) The Conundrum of Colonialism in Postwar Germany (PhD dissertation, Iowa City: University of Iowa), pp. 72–3.
In 1962, the Society’s first President, noted CDU politician Eugen Gerstenmaier, distanced himself from an article critical of Lisbon’s colonial policy which the organisation’s bulletin had published without his previous knowledge. Gerstenmaier quickly arranged for an article praising the Portuguese achievements in Africa to be published in the following issue. See A. M. Fonseca (2007) A Força das Armas: o Apoio da República Federal da Alemanha ao Estado Novo (1958–1968) (Lisbon: Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros), pp. 148–50.
R. Maslowski (1971) Der Skandal Portugal. Land ohne Menschenrechte (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag), p. 248.
For a discussion on this concern with domestic stability, particularly its role in the design of neue Ostpolitik, see J. Suri (2003) Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press), pp. 216–26.
N. Macqueen, P.A. Oliveira (2010). ‘Grocer Meets Butcher’. Marcello Caetano’s London Visit of 1973 and the Last Days of Portugal’s Estado Novo, Cold War History, 10(1), pp. 29–50.
S. Bosgra and C. Krimpen (1972) Portugal and NATO, 3rd edn (Amsterdam, Angola Comité), p. 47;
H. L. Menar (1979) Bilateralismus und Multilateralismus in der Außenpolitik Portugals seit 1945 (PhD dissertation, Hamburg: University of Hamburg), p. 343.
From the 6.1 million tons of this type of mineral mined in Angola in 1970, 5.9 million came from the Cassinga region. Angola exported 6.3 million tons of ore that year, including 1.5 million to the FRG. See J. F. Kahl (1972) Pro und Kontra Portugal: Der Konflikt um Angola und Mosambik (Stuttgart-Degerloch: Seewald Verlag), p. 187.
E. S. Ferreira (1972) Portuguese Colonialism: from South Africa to Europe (Freiburg: Aktion Dritte Welt), pp. 112–13;
A. Humbaraci and N. Muchnik (1974) Portugal’s African Wars (London: Macmillan London Limited), pp. 157, 169.
‘Krupp-Söldner gegen Freiheitskämpfer?’, Afrika heute, December 1972; T. Schroers (1998) Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: die Entwicklung der Beziehungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zur Portugiesischen Republik 1949–1976 (PhD dissertation, Hamburg: Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg), p. 90.
E. Mondlane (1969) The Struggle for Mozambique (Harmondsworth: Penguin), p. 98.
Despite the protection provided by one of the largest minefields in the world (A. Isaacman and C. Sneddon (2003) ‘Portuguese Colonial Intervention, Regional Conflict, and Post-Colonial Amnesia: Cabora Bassa Dam, Mozambique 1965–2002’, Portuguese Studies Review, 11(1), p. 218) and by General Kaúlza de Arriaga’s ambitious defence strategy
(K. Arriaga (1973) A Luta em Moçambique: 1970–1973 (Lisbon: Intervensão), pp. 45–50), it is unlikely that FRELIMO could not have caused greater damage to such a wide and complex enterprise. Indeed, according to Middlemas, the ‘engineers noticed that the skilfully-laid ambushes and mines were never directed against the vital electro-mechanical components’ (Middlemas, Cabora Bassa, p. 186). For more on this topic,
see A.N. Souto (2007) Caetano e o ocaso do ‘Império’ — Administração e Guerra Colonial em Moçambique durante o Marcelismo (1968–1974) (Oporto: Edições Afrontamento), pp. 260–7.
L.M.P.C. Alves (1997) O Projecto de Cabora Bassa (Master’s dissertation, Oporto: Universidade Portucalense Infante D. Henrique), pp. 207–12.
G. Schreyögg, H. Steinmann (1989) ‘Corporate Morality Called in Question: The Case of Cabora Bassa’, Journal of Business Ethics, 8(9), p. 680.
P. Koj (1994) ‘Anmerkungen zur Deutsch-Portugiesischen Gesellschaft’, Zeitschrift für Kulturaustausch, 1, p. 86.
J. Thies (2005) ‘Otto Wolf von Amerongen: Kundschafter der Markwirtschaft’, in P. Danylow and U. Soénius (eds) Otto Wolff: Ein Unternehmen zwischen Wirtschaft und Politik (Munich: Siedler), pp. 415–24.
E. Hillebrand, V. Vinnai (2002) ‘The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung and German policy on Africa. Some remarks’, in Engel/Kappel, Germany’s Africa Policy Revisited, p. 128.
Hillebrand/Vinnai, ‘The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung’, p. 135; For details on the dispute with AFL-CIO, see M. Fichter (2004) ‘Normalizing German-American Labor Relationships in a Changing International Environment’, in D. Junker (ed.) The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945–1990: a Handbook vol. 2, 1968–1990 (New York: Cambridge University Press), pp. 460–1.
World Council of Churches (1971) Cabora Bassa and the Struggle for Southern Africa (London: World Council of Churches).
While the Holy See did not adopt a firm position, it opened up to the liberation movements during this period, particularly with the controversial papal audience granted by Pope Paul VI to the leaders of PAIGC, FRELIMO, and MPLA in July 1970. See M. Lay (1981) Kirche im Entkolonisierungskonflikt: Eine Fallstudie zum Krieg um die Entkolonisierung Mosambiks 1964–1974 (Munich/ Mainz: Chr. Kaiser Verlag/Matthias-Grünewald-Verlag), pp. 242–3.
CIDAC, BAC0290A/a, Dokumentation des Kongresses ... ; a group of German Christians later circulated an open letter to the Bishop of Lisbon regarding this topic. See blätter des iz3w, March 1973, p. 14; while the activists’ version of events generally matched what had happened, it was not entirely accurate. For a more precise account, see N. T. Pereira (1996) ‘A Vigília da Capela do Rato’, in J. M. B. Brito and F. Rosas (eds) Dicionário de História do Estado Novo, Vol. II (Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores), pp. 1008–10.
AHD-MNE, PEA, M756, Pr.331, Telegram from the Portuguese Embassy in Bonn, 12.03.1973; G. Baars (1974) ‘Die Haltung der Deutschen Kirchen’, in A. Hastings (eds) Wiriyamu (Nürnberg: Laetare Verlag), p. 160.
G. Grohs (1975) ‘Überlegungen zum Verhältnis der Westeuropäischen Kirchen zur Situation in Portugal und seinen Afrikanischen Überseegebieten’, in G. Grohs and H. Neyer (eds) Die Kirchen und die Portugiesische Präsenz in Afrika (Munich: Kaiser), pp. 99–100.
IAN/TT/PIDE-DGS, Pr. 11, vol. 11, CI(2), Serviços Alemães, Dispatch from the Portuguese Foreign Ministry to the DGS, 21.11.1973; H. Tenhumberg (1975) ‘Möglichkeiten und Chancen eines Kirchlichen Beitrags zur Konfliktlösung’, in Grohs/Neyer, Die Kirchen, pp. 89–90; Lay, Kirche im Entkolonisierungskonflikt, pp. 194–5.
H. U. Thamer (1994) ‘Ansichten einer Diktatur: Die Portugal-Rezeption in Deutschland 1933 bis 1974’, Zeitschrift für Kulturaustausch, 1, pp. 26–7.
M. Matos (1977) Das Bild Portugals in der Oeffentlichen Meinung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1961–1975 (PhD dissertation, Bonn: University of Bonn), pp. 91–154.
Strauß had infamously ordered raids and arrests against Der Spiegel in 1962 because of an article about the FRG’s vulnerable defensive capability. See J. Schöps (1983) Die Spiegel-Affäre des Franz Josef Strauss (Reinbeck bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag).
A. Zons (1984) Das Denkmal: Bundeskanzler Willy Brandt und die Linksliberale Presse (Munich: Olzog Verlag), pp. 37–52.
F. R. Allemann (1971) 8 Mal Portugal (Munich: R. Piper & Co Verlag), p. 8.
R. Sänger (1996) ‘Die portugiesische Kolonialpolitik und die ehemaligen portugiesischen Kolonien aus der Sicht der deutschsprachigen Politikwissenschaftlichen Forschung’, in O. Marques, A. Opitz, and F. Clara (eds) Portugal –Alemanha–África (Lisbon: Colibri), p. 242.
E. G. Jacob (1969) Grundzüge der Geschichte Portugals und seiner Übersee-Provinzen (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft).
L. Renard (1968) Salazar: Kirche und Staat in Portugal (Essen: Ludgerus); M. Raske, K. Schäfer, and N. Wetzel (eds) (1970) Der Totalitäre Gottesstaat. Die Lage der Christen in Portugal, Spanien und im Baskenland: Eine Dokumentation (Dusseldorf: Patmos-Verlag).
M. Soares (1973) Portugal: Rechtsdiktatur Zwischen Europa und Kolonialismus (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag).
Articles by Annette Körner in Afrika heute, September 1973, pp. 26–31, and October/November 1973, pp. 23–7; see also P. Guinée (1974) Portugal, Afrika und die Europaeische Gemeinschaft (Bonn: Eduardo de Sousa Ferreira).
This antagonism stretched back to the student protests in the 1960s, when the publishing company had developed an infamously harsh rhetoric against the students. See S. J. Hilwig (1998) ‘The Revolt Against the Establishment: Students Versus the Press in West Germany and Italy’, in C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) (1998) 1968: The World Transformed (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press), pp. 321–35.
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Lopes, R. (2014). The Domestic Front: Facing the ‘Tribunal’. In: West Germany and the Portuguese Dictatorship, 1968–1974. Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137402080_3
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