Abstract
This paper analyzes the concept of general causation and the concept of kamma. It argues that the concept of kamma does not fit with the concept of moral education for three reasons. First, general causation explains causal relations using substances and the idea of temporal connections as a basis. Second, reward and punishment in moral learning also work with the concept of general causation. However, the skillful and unskillful actions (kusala/akusala kamma) parallel reward and punishment in the natural flow of kammic events. Here, a temporal gap between kamma and vipāka (action and result) makes the relations unknowable, notably when correlated with punabbhava (rebecoming or rebirth). Third, Theravāda Buddhist metaphysics of paṭiccasamuppāda (dependent co-arising) holds that all existents flow in co-arising condition. Since reality is not seen as persons and substances, it makes the fruit of kamma seems arbitrary and unknowable.
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Notes
- 1.
In general, the aim of believing is to believe what is true. Truths of the pragmatism theory or the practical knowledge rely on what is useful for living a life. In general, the problem of “what truths are?” can broadly be answered by three theories; the correspondence theory, the coherence theory, and the pragmatism theory of truth (Glanzberg, 2021). This study sees that, in moral education, the knowledge exchange between a moral agent and society or teachers should engage a sense of living in the world and universal moral principles. The universal moral principles here point to values that could hold for everyone, e.g., the feelings of pleasure and pain bodily and psychologically.
- 2.
Pāḷi: kamma; Sanskrit: karma.
- 3.
Pañcavera sutta (Five Threats) and pañcasīla sutta (Five Precepts) are the discourses related to the inquiries about females raised by the interlocutors pertained to the Buddha. It does not reflect any gender issue. A similar context about the five precepts and rebirth disregarding the female gender is also found, for example, in Aṅguttara Nikāya, Upasampadāvaggo, Bhikkhu Sutta (AN 5.286) (see Bhikkhusutta—Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 4.
Saṁyutta Nikāya, Saḷāyatanavaggo, Pañcavera Sutta (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 5.
Saṁyutta Nikāya, Saḷāyatanavaggo, Pañcasīla Sutta (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 6.
Blaming the victim describes that any painful conditions held by the victims are accountable for their previous unskillful deeds. Therefore, the blamers may think any assistance for the victims is unnecessary.
- 7.
The determisistic view of kamma explains that the occurrences of the fruits of kamma are determined by the previous causes, which cannot avoid or change; therefore, moral agents could become passively surrendered to their results of kamma.
- 8.
The Western general causation is the idea that there are general principles or laws of causation that apply to all events in the world. This view suggests that there are certain rules, patterns, or principles that govern how events are related to each other, and by understanding them, we can make predictions about future events.
- 9.
Sutta Piṭaka provides the discourses of the Buddha teaching to monks and laypeople.
- 10.
Abhidhamma Piṭaka provides the ontology of dhamma or the theory of reality as dhamma.
- 11.
The primary Pāli sources of Theravāda Buddhism in Thailand, which are the recommended sources for the Thai Buddhist monk to study, include Vinaya Piṭaka, Sutta Piṭaka, Abhidhamma Piṭaka, Milinda Pañha, Visuddhimagga, Abhidhammattha Sangaha (the commentary expounding on Abhidhamma), Vinayaṭṭhakathā (the commentary expounding on Vinaya), and Bhikkhupātimokkhapāli (Payutto, 2002).
- 12.
Paṭiccasamuppāda, or dependent origination or dependent co-arising, shows a recurrence of causality of twelve constituent factors incorporated phenomena of the association of the five aggregates. It has another definition as the creation of suffering. It is the first concept that the Buddha was expounding during the seventh days of the uninterrupted sitting meditation under the Bodhi tree (see Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka, First Khandhaka, Mahāvagga, Vin.I.1), and it can be found in several places in Sutta and also in Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The cycle begins with ignorance (avijjā), then volitional activities (saṅkhāra), consciousness (viññāṇa), mentality and corporeality (nāmarūpa), six senses bases (saḷāyatana), contact (phassa), feeling (vedanā), craving (taṇhā), clinging (upādāna), becoming (bhava), birth (jāti), aging, and death (jarāmaraṇa) here includes the origin of suffering (dukkha-samudaya), which are sorrow (soka), lamentation (parideva), pain (dukkha), grief (domanassa), and despair (upāyāsa).
- 13.
Considering causation inquiry from the origin, the Greek word “aitia” or cause, can be grossly classified into two views. Firstly, it is the meaning of cause in a metaphysic and epistemic view as explanation or reason. “Aitia” also has a juridical sense of responsibility for the existence of some events, actions, or states of affairs. Another is the meaning in an empiricist or a scientific view as necessary connexion or real causes such as fundamental forces of nature (Broadie, 2012, pp. 22–23).
- 14.
Bharucha’s work of causation is dedicated to Physics and explores the relevance of the Buddhist causation in the context of modern Physics. The sense-world is translated by physics to a formal physical world image that appears to be causally connected, then deriving a necessary conclusion from logical deductions. However, this process leads to inaccuracy, and making the prediction is subject to inaccuracy due to a homo-logic approach (Bharucha, 1992, pp. 30–31). Instead of a homo-logic approach (a formal proof in an axiomatic system), he proposes a heterological approach. He notes that various schools of Buddhism have practical guidelines to go beyond the ordinary experience of space-time existence and cites Sawami Vivekananda Jnana Yoga, “Time, space and causation are the glass through which the Absolute is seen […] In the absolute, there is neither time, space nor causation” (Bharucha, 1992, pp. 167–168).
- 15.
In Western epistemology, there are no multiple levels of truths, instead, the interest gears to the ontology of truth or the problem of “What truths are?,” as explained in footnote no. 1. Moreover, there is another main question of “What does it take to know something?.” Buddhism may respond to the last question by its concept of phenomena of contacts (phassa) according to the dependent co-arising (paṭiccasamuppāda), and the thought-process according to Abhidhamma (see the thought-process at Anuruddha, 1999, pp. 27–29).
- 16.
Two levels of reality are introduced in Abhidhamma: conventional or consensual reality (sammuti) and ultimate reality (paramattha) (Payutto, 2017, p. 70). Pāli sutta-s do not explicitly present the two systems of reality since the Buddha refrains from explaining reality on a metaphysical basis. However, the two concepts of reality are found in Pāli sutta-s’ commentary text to provide extra explanation of the reality regarding the Buddha’s teachings in two ways. First, it is to explain when the Buddha mentions a person (puggala). Since there is nonself, so the person meant by the Buddha is subsumed under consensual reality (for example, see details in the Pāli commentary of Aṅguttara Nikāya, XIII. Ekapuggalavagga, pp. 170–178, “A Certain person”). Second, it is to explain the use of conventional language of the Buddha while teaching so that to justify consistency of the concept of nonself in general (for example, see details in the Pāli commentary of Khuddaka Nikāya, Itivuttaka, 24, “A Heap of Bones”).
- 17.
As Anuruddha states, “The ultimate realities are characterized not only from the ontological angle as the ultimate existents, but also from the epistemological angle as the ultimate objects of right knowledge [...] Thus by examining the conventional realities with wisdom, we eventually arrive at the objective actualities that lie behind our conceptual constructs” (Anuruddha, 1999, p. 26).
- 18.
Aṅguttara Nikāya, Pañcaka-chakkanipātā, Nibbedika Sutta (AN 6.63) (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
In “Karma, Causation, and Divine Intervention,” Reichenbach mentions that the law of karma requires explaining its precise moral calculations and its causal operations; therefore, it leads to the appeal to a theistic administrator. However, a supernaturalistic view of divine grace and forgiveness violates the status of the law of karma. In sum, both naturalistic and supernaturalistic views face some difficulties in explaining how the law of karma operates (Reichenbach, 1989, p. 148).
- 21.
Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto provides how agents should move to the following three methods; i.e., the three sequences to prove the truth of rebirth. First is verification through mental concentration if the mind creates deceptive images (nimitta) while practicing meditation. Second is verification by sacrificing one’s life; however, no one wishes to do so. Third is verification through case histories and logical arguments: for example, collecting data of agents who can recollect past life memories and looking for other scientific ways of validation like wavelengths of light. However, it is still not a piece of direct knowledge. Lastly, he concludes that no matter what beliefs, denials, and evidence of agents' rebirths are, it is a present life with which the agents should engage. Therefore, the present life requires care and attention. Only a few descriptions of past and future lives, heaven and hell, are referred to in the sutta-s, compared to the teaching pertaining to the present life (Payutto, 2017, pp. 368–369).
- 22.
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) proposes five methods for identifying causal connections between events, see (Hurley & Watson, 2018, pp. 560–577).
- 23.
Majjhima Nikāya, Mahākammavibhaṅga Sutta (MN 136) (Bhikkhu Thanissaro, 2010).
- 24.
Dīgha Nikāya, Pāṭika, Dasuttara Sutta, see Groups of Six (DN 34) (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 25.
Majjhima Nikāya, Cūḷakammavibhaṅga Sutta, (MN 135) (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 26.
The pragmatic theory of truth of William James (1842–1910) tells that in order to describe which statement is true depends on its utility. The true statement is the statement that is useful to believe by hel** us do what it needs to get done, “Ideas […] become true just in so far as they help us get into satisfactory relation with other parts of our experience, to summarize them and get about among them by conceptual short-cuts instead of following the interminable succession of particular phenomena. (James, 1907 [1975], 34)” (Capps, 2019).
- 27.
AN 4.233 (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 28.
Digha Nikaya, Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) (The Longer Discourse on Mindfulness Meditation).
- 29.
Samyutta Nikaya, Sīvaka Sutta (SN 36.21) (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 30.
Somparn Promta discusses this notion of biconditionals in Promta (BE2560 [2017]). This biconditional logic makes the ultimate reality of the Buddha true when its two components have the same truth value (True vs True, and False vs False).
- 31.
Vinaya Piṭaka, Mahāvagga, Mahākhandhaka (KD 1) (Horner, 2014).
- 32.
Dhamma means absolute reality, which means all things exist according to conditionality. Ordinary people call dhamma nature. Nature operates by the law of nature (niyāma) or the rule of certainty, and kamma-niyāma, or the principle of kamma is considered one type of natural law with a distinct attribute (Payutto, 2017, pp. 311–312).
- 33.
Aṅguttara Nikāya, pañcaka-chakkanipātā, Paṭhamaduccarita Sutta (Bhikkhu Sujato, 2018).
- 34.
In Indian philosophy, the metaphysic presupposition regarding kamma differs from school to school in both the orthodox (Hinduism: Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta) and the heterodox (Jainism, Buddhism, and Carvāka). In such metaphysical presupposition, Buddhism differs from the others in that there is no substance, all things are impermanent, and all things exist in a momentary phenomenon. This idea leads to a debate that the non-substance, momentary, and impermanent self cannot experience the results of its previous action since the moral agent disappears before arising of the results (Chakraborty, 1998, p. 41).
- 35.
Aṅguttara Nikāya, Kesamutti Sutta (AN 3.63) (Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2012).
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Iso, K. (2023). Conflicts Between General Causation and the Theravāda Concept of Kamma in Moral Education. In: Hongladarom, S., Joaquin, J.J., Hoffman, F.J. (eds) Philosophies of Appropriated Religions. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5191-8_20
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