Abstract
This chapter investigates conservation claims and issues as they pertain to hunting. After a description of the major regulations governing trophy hunting imports and exports (5.1 Trophy Hunting Regulations), this chapter examines the conservation situation in two geographically different sections.
The first section (5.2 Hunting and Conservation in Africa) concerns the stereotypical perception of trophy hunting. The trophy hunting situation and conservation issues are completely different in Africa than in Europe and USA and the problems are more diverse and complex. African hunting is more controversial because the species involved (lions, elephants, giraffes, etc.) are iconic, highly anthropomorphized, and sometimes endangered. Both species extinction and species overpopulation are issues in Africa. Corruption, poverty, poaching, and the West imposing their wildlife ideals on Africa are also important factors that we cover here.
The second section (5.3 Hunting and Conservation in Eurasia and the Americas) concerns trophy hunting mostly in Europe and USA, where they have few natural predators of deer, so hunting is broadly considered the most feasible way of kee** deer populations from outgrowing carrying capacities of habitats. There are issues, however, with kee** populations down, because hunters favour bucks (because of trophy-fixations and ingrained fair chase ideals), and shooting bucks does little to keep populations in check. Also, shooting the wrong bucks or shooting them too early leads to genetic problems in the populations. These are the primary conservation issues that we discuss in a European- and US context.
Other conservation-related matters discussed in this chapter are hunting and genetics, management alternatives to hunting, photography, and poaching.
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Change history
09 December 2023
A correction has been published.
Notes
- 1.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, near universally called “the Red List,” is an inventory that details the conservation status of species. It is a very common error to assume that a species’ presence on the list indicates that it is in danger of imminent extinction, but even overabundant species are on the Red List; it just means that the conservation status of a species has been evaluated. The status of each species is assessed by an expert group and species are assigned to one of nine categories. These categories are: Not Evaluated; Data Deficient; Least Threatened; Near Threatened; Vulnerable; Endangered; Critically Endangered; Extinct in the Wild; and Extinct. To be considered “threatened” a species should have a status of Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. For more information on the IUCN Red List, visit www.iucnredlist.org, where individual species’ listings can also be accessed, providing invaluable data and information on conservation status and actions.
- 2.
This finding is called a Non-Detriment Finding and its details were specified and adopted in resolution 8.6.
- 3.
Resolution 13.7, par. 3 further stipulates some exemptions that may be relevant to hunting trophies in very rare cases of export to a neighbouring country, but we will not get into that.
- 4.
This data is extracted from Species+ (https://www.speciesplus.net/species), developed by UNEP and CITES.
- 5.
Elephants are Appendix I, except for populations in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, which are Appendix II for a limited number of purposes, one of which is trophy hunting (described in annotation 2 of the CITES appendices).
- 6.
These numbers all refer to tusks, so the 800 tusks for Botswana equate to 400 elephants, etc.
- 7.
Appendix II in Botswana, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Otherwise Appendix I.
- 8.
Numbers for Nile crocodiles vary a lot because they are a mix of wild and ranched specimens.
- 9.
Lions in India consist of a single Asiatic lion population of around 500 specimens in the Gir National Park.
- 10.
TCM traditionally used tiger bones, but since the use of tiger bones for TCM has been banned in China, lion bones have been sought out as an alternative in recent years.
- 11.
If this seems confusing when the ESA’s treatment of lions is compared to the CITES treatment of lions, it is because the ESA differentiates between threatened and endangered lions based on the ranges and population sizes of the two subspecies of lions (Panthera leo melanochaita and Panthera leo leo), whereas CITES differentiates between Appendix II and I lions based on their geographic distribution (Africa and India). These distinctions are not functionally the same, as leo leo populations exist in both India and West-/Central Africa. The Indian population of leo leo is also sometimes—e.g. by IUCN—taxonomically referred to as the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica). IUCN estimates that there are around 23,000–39,000 leo melanochaita worldwide, but less than 25,000 seems more realistic (see Chapter 5.2.1). The number of leo leo seems to be around 500–2,000.
- 12.
The Asiatic lion (P. leo persica/P. leo leo) is Annex A and therefore, because of Annex XIII to EC865/2006, treated the same as P. leo melanochaita.
- 13.
In addition to CITES not monitoring unappendixed species, CITES data is often deceptively difficult to interpret correctly and is frequently misrepresented even in peer-reviewed literature (see Foster et al. [2014] or Robinson and Sinovas [2018] for related discussions). Hunting trophy data for a lion, for example, may refer to pelts, skulls, claws, and possibly more, meaning that one cannot assume a 1:1 relationship between lions killed and lion trophies imported. A lion can make one trophy, so the trophy number is the same as the number of lions killed, or it can make one skin, one skull, 20 claws and numerous teeth, giving the impression that, rather than one lion being killed, there were perhaps 40 or more. Likewise, elephant tusks might be weighed, and that weight entered in the “number” column as kilograms. It is all too easy to mistake an entry of, say, “35” for 35 elephants instead of 35 kg of ivory from one elephant. Macdonald (2016) writes that from 1991 to 2013, 80 wild lion trophies were reported exported to the UK, while the UK importation records for the same period show that 4 lion trophies were imported. Also, CITES parties may collect and report data in different ways, have joined in different years, etc. Export data and import data often just do not match. 35,000 black bear trophies (hunted in Canada by Americans) were traded in the years 2013–2017 according to CITES data for mammals as reported by importers, which is a dominant first place with lion trophies coming in second at roughly 5000 trophies. Yet black bears do not figure at all in data reported by exporters, while lions remain the same, now seemingly the most traded.
- 14.
“Protected Area” is a categorization used by IUCN. 7 kinds of PAs exist, ranging from category Ia, a strict nature reserve where human presence is hardly allowed, to VI in which sustainable use of natural resources—including hunting—may be allowed. Generally, areas managed for hunting are category IV or VI (Booth and Chardonnet 2015: 13–14). See also Dudley (2008) for more information.
- 15.
Fencing in PAs are commonly advocated as an effective conservation tool (see Packer et al. 2013). One of the leading causes of lion deaths is retaliatory killings, and fences keep lions away from livestock and pastoralists away from lions. It is, however, a very expensive solution because the areas that need to be fenced are large, and fences need maintenance. It is also a problem that fencing provides poachers with materials for snares. This endangers more wildlife and further increases maintenance costs. In the Niassa National Reserve in Mozambique, poachers’ snares are responsible for more than half of all lion deaths (Funston et al. 2016: 1). According to Funston et al. (2016: 17), fences also break up ecosystems, obstruct migration routes, and isolate populations genetically. Fenced PAs are still considered “wild” and so is the enclosed wildlife, as the areas are so large. This fencing practice of large PAs should not be confused with the fencing of lions in much smaller areas for canned hunting or other commercial purposes in South Africa.
- 16.
The question remains for both the BVC and the SVC population, as Tensen et al. point out, whether they might be subject to inbreeding in the long run, given the small founding populations.
- 17.
AH visited Namibia in 2021 and had the opportunity to speak to some community representatives in several conservancies in north and west Namibia. All of them echoed the sentiment expressed here, with some being clearly angry that people overseas were interfering with a form of conservation that communities felt worked for both wildlife and people. The film Beyond the Trigger by podcaster Ryan Dalton (Into the Wild Podcast) records some of this testimony and is free on YouTube.
- 18.
Again, SCI’s World Hunting Awards Field Journal is useful as an indicator of trophy hunted species.
- 19.
Turkeys are considered big game in the National Survey, and while it is rarer, some turkey hunters do keep trophies. SCI also has a “Turkeys of the World” award. The usual way to prepare a turkey trophy seems to be to make a fanned-out display of the tailfeathers on a wooden plaque.
- 20.
We would normally rely on IUCN Red List data for population trends, but the estimation of above 11 million individuals by Gallina and Arevalo (2016) is in this case far from other common estimates of somewhere close to 30 million.
- 21.
Herbaceous non-grass flowering plants.
- 22.
One km2 is equal to 100 hectares, so the requirements of 1 and 5 hectares of land are very low. The Danish hunting management philosophy is to ensure that hunting opportunities remain broadly accessible and not just a privilege of wealthy landowners and royalty. Yet, as mentioned, it remains a very expensive hobby.
- 23.
Large hunting estates do not have the problem of bucks fleeing to neighbouring properties. They also often have wildlife managers employed to ensure that the offtake contributes to the healthiest possible population. Large trophy bucks are therefore often killed on such estates or on the small farmlands lucky enough to surround them.
- 24.
One might add winters and disease to Teale’s examples. Unfit specimens are also at greater risk of dying of non-predator natural causes than the fittest specimens.
- 25.
A suppressor, or moderator, is a can-shaped device that can be attached to the muzzle of a firearm to reduce the intensity of the sound produced when a bullet is fired. Popularly called a “silencer,” suppressors do not “silence” the calibres of rifle typically used in deer hunting. Rifle shots are very loud, and even a suppressed rifle shot in an urban area would not be “neighbour friendly.” Small calibre rifles (such as .22LR rimfire) shooting subsonic ammunition through a suppressor are virtually silent, but are not legal for deer shooting in many jurisdictions.
- 26.
Indigenous or tribal.
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Bichel, N., Hart, A. (2023). Trophy Hunting and Conservation. In: Trophy Hunting. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9976-5_5
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