Abstract
Aquaculture has been ranked as one of the fastest-growing food sub-sectors, providing quality protein to better the livelihoods of rural communities alongside curbing malnutrition and food security globally. Nonetheless, the industry’s sustainability has been threatened by the high cost of fish feeds, which account for approximately 60–70% of the total operational costs. Fish meal (FM) has been extensively utilised as the main source of protein in the diets of farmed finfishes. However, due to declining capture fisheries and competing uses from other animal feed producers, the ingredient has become a scarce resource with limited availability and high prices. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have been identified as a promising alternative protein source in fish feeds. BSFL are documented to have high nutritional content: crude protein (of up to 64% dry matter), essential amino acids, fatty acids, and other micro-nutrients which are vital for the growth of fish. BSFL meal has the potential success of replacing FM in the diets of various fish species. This chapter focuses on analysing recent research work in BSFL proximate and chemical composition, its current utilisation in fish feeds and gaps to be filled in its complete utilisation as an ingredient in commercial feed production. This information is expected to help both cottage and commercial fish feed producers utilise BSFL in feed production in Kenya and further will promote the sustainability of the aquaculture industry.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdel-Tawwab M, Khalil RH, Metwally AA et al (2020) Effects of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal on growth performance, organs-somatic indices, body composition, and hemato-biochemical variables of European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax. Aquaculture 522:735136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735136
Alfaro AO, Núñez WL, Marcia J, Fernández IM (2019) The cricket (Gryllus assimilis) as an alternative food versus commercial concentrate for tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) in the nursery stage. J Agric Sci 11:97. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v11n6p97
Andersen SM, Waagbø R, Espe M (2016) Functional amino acids in fish health and welfare. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 8:143–169. https://doi.org/10.2741/757
Awoniyi TAM (2007) Health, nutritional and consumers’ acceptability assurance of maggot meal inclusion in livestock diet: a review. Int J Trop Med 2:52–56
Barragan-Fonseca KB, Dicke M, van Loon JJA (2017) Nutritional value of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) and its suitability as animal feed—a review. J Insects Food Feed 3:105–120. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.0055
Betancor MB, Sprague M, Montero D et al (2016) Replacement of marine fish oil with de novo Omega-3 oils from transgenic Camelina sativa in feeds for Gilthead Sea bream (Sparus aurata L.). Lipids 51:1171–1191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-016-4191-4
Burtle G, Newton GL, Sheppard DC (2012) Mass production of black soldier fly prepupae for aquaculture diets. 6. engormix.com/Aquaculture
Caimi C, Renna M, Lussiana C et al (2020) First insights on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal dietary administration in Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii Brandt) juveniles. Aquaculture 515:734539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2019.734539
Cummins VC, Rawles SD, Thompson KR et al (2017) Evaluation of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal as partial or total replacement of marine fish meal in practical diets for Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Aquaculture 473:337–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.02.022
Devic E, Leschen W, Murray F, Little DC (2018) Growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of advanced nursing Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed diets containing Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal. Aquac Nutr 24:416–423
Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Gutiérrez FR, Zurbrügg C, Tockner K (2011) Black soldier fly larvae for organic waste treatment – prospects and constraints. In: Proceedings of the WasteSafe 2011 – 2nd international conference on solid waste management in the develo** countries, p 275
Dietz C, Liebert F (2018) Does graded substitution of soy protein concentrate by an insect meal respond on growth and utilization in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)? Aquac Reports 12:43–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2018.09.001
Dortmans B, Diener S, Verstappen B, Zurbrügg C (2017) Black soldier fly biowaste processing—a step-by-step guide. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf
Dumas A, Raggi T, Barkhouse J et al (2018) The oil fraction and partially defatted meal of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) affect differently growth performance, feed efficiency, nutrient deposition, blood glucose and lipid digestibility of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 492:24–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.03.038
El-Sayed AFM (1998) Total replacement of fish meal with animal protein sources in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), feeds. Aquac Res 29:275–280. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2109.1998.00199.x
El-Sayed A-FM, Tacon AGJ (1997) Fishmeal replacers for tilapia: a review. Cah Options Méditerranéennes 22:205–224
Elwert C, Knips I, Katz P (2010) A novel protein source: Maggot meal of the Black Soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) in broiler feed. 11 Tagung Schweine- und Geflügelernährung 140–142
Ewald N, Vidakovic A, Langeland M et al (2020) Fatty acid composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens)—possibilities and limitations for modification through diet. Waste Manag 102:40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.014
FAO (2020) The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020. In: Sustainability in action. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Fawole FJ, Adeoye AA, Tiamiyu LO et al (2020) Substituting fishmeal with Hermetia illucens in the diets of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus): effects on growth, nutrient utilization, haemato-physiological response, and oxidative stress biomarker. Aquaculture 518:734849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2019.734849
Finke MD (2013) Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects. Zoo Biol 32:27–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21012
Ghosh S, Lee SM, Jung C, Meyer-Rochow VB (2017) Nutritional composition of five commercial edible insects in South Korea. J Asia Pac Entomol 20:686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2017.04.003
Guerreiro I, Castro C, Antunes B et al (2020) Catching black soldier fly for meagre: growth, whole-body fatty acid profile and metabolic responses. Aquaculture 516:734613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2019.734613
Hasan MR, Chakrabarti R (2009) Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small-scale aquaculture. Food and agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome
Henry M, Gasco L, Piccolo G, Fountoulaki E (2015) Review on the use of insects in the diet of farmed fish: past and future. Anim Feed Sci Technol 203:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.03.001
Holeh GM, Appenteng P, Opiyo MA et al (2020) Effects of intermittent feeding regimes on growth performance and economic benefits of Amur catfish (Silurus asotus). Aquat Res 3:167–176. https://doi.org/10.3153/ar20015
Hu Y, Huang Y, Tang T et al (2020) Effect of partial black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal replacement of fish meal in practical diets on the growth, digestive enzyme and related gene expression for rice field eel (Monopterus albus). Aquac Reports 17:100345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100345
Katya K, Borsra MZS, Ganesan D et al (2017) Efficacy of insect larval meal to replace fish meal in juvenile barramundi, Lates calcarifer reared in freshwater. Int Aquat Res 9:303–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40071-017-0178-x
Khalifa NSA, Belal IEH, El-Tarabily KA et al (2018) Evaluation of replacing fish meal with corn protein concentrate in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings commercial diet. Aquac Nutr 24:143–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12542
Khosravi S, Kim E, Lee YS, Lee SM (2018) Dietary inclusion of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) meal as an alternative protein source in practical diets for juvenile rockfish (Sebastes schlegeli). Entomol Res 48:214–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-5967.12306
Kroeckel S, Harjes AGE, Roth I et al (2012) When a turbot catches a Fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute—growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture 364–365:345–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041
Larouche J (2019) Processing methods for the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae: from feed withdrawal periods to killing methods
Li S, Ji H, Zhang B et al (2017) Defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal in diets for juvenile Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian): growth performance, antioxidant enzyme activities, digestive enzyme activities, intestine and hepatopancreas histological structure. Aquaculture 477:62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.04.015
Liu X, Chen X, Wang H et al (2017) Dynamic changes of nutrient composition throughout the entire life cycle of black soldier fly. PLoS One 12:e0182601. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182601
Mohanta KN, Subramanian S, Korikanthimath VS (2016) Potential of earthworm (Eisenia foetida) as dietary protein source for rohu (Labeo rohita) advanced fry. Cogent Food Agric 2:1138594. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2016.1138594
Montoya-Camacho N, Marquez-Ríos E, Castillo-Yáñez FJ et al (2019) Advances in the use of alternative protein sources for tilapia feeding. Rev Aquac 11:515–526. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12243
Moutinho S, Pedrosa R, Magalhães R et al (2021) Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pre-pupae larvae meal in diets for European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles: effects on liver oxidative status and fillet quality traits during shelf-life. Aquaculture 533:736080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.736080
Muin H, Taufek NM, Kamarudin MS, Razak SA (2017) Growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed with different levels of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) maggot meal diet. Iran J Fish Sci 16:567–577
Nairuti RN, Munguti JM, Waidbacher H, Zollitsch W (2021) Growth performance and survival rates of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) reared on diets containing Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal. Die Bodenkultur J Land Manag Food Environ 72:9–19. https://doi.org/10.2478/boku-2021-0002
Nairuti RN, Musyoka SN, Yegon MJ, Opiyo MA (2022) Utilization of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus) larvae as a protein source for fish feed: a review. Aquac Stud 22:AQUAST697. https://doi.org/10.4194/AQUAST697
National Research Council (NRC) (2011) Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp. National Academies Press, Washington
Nguyen TTX, Tomberlin JK, Vanlaerhoven S (2015) Ability of Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae to recycle food waste. Environ Entomol 44:406–410. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvv002
Onsongo VO, Osuga IM, Gachuiri CK et al (2018) Insects for income generation through animal feed: effect of dietary replacement of soybean and fish meal with black soldier fly meal on broiler growth and economic performance. J Econ Entomol 111:1966–1973. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy118
Oonincx DGAB, Van Broekhoven S, Van Huis A, Van Loon JJA (2015) Feed conversion, survival and development, and composition of four insect species on diets composed of food by-products. PLoS One 10:1–21. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144601
Renna M, Schiavone A, Gai F et al (2017) Evaluation of the suitability of a partially defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal as ingredient for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) diets. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 8:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-017-0191-3
Shumo M, Khamis FM, Tanga CM et al (2019a) Influence of temperature on selected life-history traits of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) reared on two common urban organic waste streams in Kenya. Animals 9:79. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9030079
Shumo M, Osuga IM, Khamis FM et al (2019b) The nutritive value of black soldier fly larvae reared on common organic waste streams in Kenya. Sci Rep 9:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-46603-z
Sophie S-H, Sheppard DC, Tomberlin JK et al (2007) Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. J World Aquac Soc 38:59–67
Spranghers T, Ottoboni M, Klootwijk C et al (2017) Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates. J Sci Food Agric 97:2594–2600. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8081
Tacon AGJ (2018) Global trends in aquaculture and compound aquafeed production. World Acquaculture 49:33–46
Tomberlin JK, Sheppard DC, Joyce JA (2002) Selected life-history traits of black soldier flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) reared on three artificial diets. Ann Entomol Soc Am 95:379–386
Toriz-Roldan A, Ruiz-Vega J, García-Ulloa M et al (2019) Assessment of dietary supplementation levels of black soldier Fly, Hemertia illucens L, pre-pupae meal for Juvenile Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Southwest Entomol 44:251. https://doi.org/10.3958/059.044.0127
Tschirner M, Simon A (2015) Influence of different growing substrates and processing on the nutrient composition of black soldier fly larvae destined for animal feed. J Insects Food Feed 1:249–259. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2014.0008
Veldkamp T, van Duinkerken G, van Huis A et al (2012) Insects as a sustainable feed ingredient in pig and poultry diets—a feasibility study. Rep 38:48195
Wachira MN, Osuga IM, Munguti JM et al (2021) Efficiency and improved profitability of insect-based aquafeeds for farming Nile tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus L.). Animals 11:2599. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11092599
Wang Y-S, Shelomi M (2017) Review of black soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) as animal feed and human food. Foods 6:91. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6100091
Weththasinghe P, Hansen J, Nøkland D et al (2021) Full-fat black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) meal and paste in extruded diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): effect on physical pellet quality, nutrient digestibility, nutrient utilization and growth performances. Aquaculture 530:735785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735785
Zurbrügg C, Dortmans B, Fadhila A et al (2018) From pilot to full scale operation of a waste-to-protein treatment facility. Detritus 1:18–22. https://doi.org/10.26403/detritus/2018.22
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Opiyo, M.A., Nairuti, R.N., Ngugi, C.C., Holeh, G.M. (2023). Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Meal as a Sustainable Protein Source for Fish Feed Production in Kenya. In: Gabriel, N.N., Omoregie, E., Abasubong, K.P. (eds) Emerging Sustainable Aquaculture Innovations in Africa. Sustainability Sciences in Asia and Africa(). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7451-9_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7451-9_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-19-7450-2
Online ISBN: 978-981-19-7451-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)