Abstract
Energy in stars is provided by nuclear reactions, which, in many cases, produce radioactive nuclei. When stable nuclei are irradiated by a flux of protons or neutrons, capture reactions push stable matter out of stability into the regime of unstable species. The ongoing production of radioactive nuclei in the deep interior of the Sun via proton-capture reactions is recorded by neutrinos emitted during radioactive decay. These neutrinos escape the inner region of the Sun and can be detected on Earth. Radioactive nuclei that have relatively long half lives may also be detected in stars via spectroscopic observations and in stardust recovered from primitive meteorites via laboratory analysis. The vast majority of these stardust grains originated from Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) stars. This is the final phase in the evolution of stars initially less massive than ≃10 M⊙, during which nuclear energy is produced by alternate hydrogen and helium burning in shells above the core. The long-lived radioactive nucleus26Al is produced in AGB stars by proton captures at relatively high temperatures, above 60 MK. Efficient production of 26Al occurs in massive AGB stars (> 4:5 M⊙), where the base of the convective envelope reaches such temperatures. Several other long-lived radioactive nuclei, including 60Fe, 87Rb, and 99Tc, are produced in AGB stars when matter is exposed to a significant neutron flux leading to the synthesis of elements heavier than iron. Here, neutron captures occur on a timescale that is typically slower than β-decay timescales, resulting in a process known as slow neutron captures (the s-process). However, when radioactive nuclei with half lives greater than a few days are produced, depending on the temperature and the neutron density, they may either decay or capture a neutron, thus branching up the path of neutron captures and defining the final s-process abundance distribution. The effect of these branching points is observable in the composition of AGB stars and stardust. This nucleosynthesis in AGB stars could produce some long-living radioactive nuclei in relative abundances that resemble those observed in the early solar system.
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Notes
- 1.
The average distance a particle travels between collisions.
- 2.
The term metallicity indicates the abundance of metals in a star, where metals corresponds to all elements heavier than He. The metallicity of the Sun is ≃0.02 by mass fraction, where abundances are normalised to a total of 1, which means that 2% of the solar matter is made up of elements heavier than He. The most abundant of these is oxygen, followed by carbon.
- 3.
Lithium has two stable isotopes 6Li and 7Li, of which 7Li is the more abundant representing 92% of solar Li.
- 4.
- 5.
OH/IR stars are cool red giants with strong hydroxyl (OH) masers and infrared (IR) emissions.
- 6.
1 mbarn = 10−27 cm2.
- 7.
This reaction produces 14C, a radioactive nucleus with a half life of 5730 years. This nucleus is not carried to the stellar surface by the 3rd dredge-up because it is destroyed by 14C(α, n)18O reactions during He-burning in the thermal pulse.
- 8.
Note that σ is usually given in mbarn, corresponding to 10−27 cm2, and that < σv > can be approximated to σ × vtherma, where vthermal is the thermal velocity. Neutron capture cross sections for (n, γ) reactions throughout this chapter are given at a temperature of 350 million degrees, corresponding to an energy of 30 keV, at which these rates are traditionally given. Values reported are from the Kadonis database (Karlsruhe Astrophysical Database of Nucleosynthesis in Stars, http://www.kadonis.org/) and the JINA reaclib database (http://groups.nscl.msu.edu/**a/reaclib/db/index.php), unless stated otherwise.
- 9.
The p-process contribution to elemental abundances is comparatively very small, ≃1%, except in the case of Mo and Ru, which have magic and close-to-magic p-only isotopes, where it is up to ≃25% and ≃7%, respectively.
- 10.
For a detailed analytical description of the s process refer to Chapter 7 of Clayton (1968).
- 11.
- 12.
Final abundance ratios are equivalent to yield ratios because the yields reflect the composition at the end of the evolution, since more than half of the mass lost during the entire life of the star leaves the star at the end of the AGB phase in the superwind.
- 13.
Followed by fast decay of 99Mo, with a half life of 66 h.
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Lugaro, M., Chieffi, A. (2018). Low- and Intermediate-Mass Stars. In: Diehl, R., Hartmann, D., Prantzos, N. (eds) Astrophysics with Radioactive Isotopes. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol 453. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91929-4_3
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