Abstract
Long-term experience in Windhoek (55 years) shows that treated, domestic used water (secondary effluent) can be both safely and cost-efficiently utilized for direct potable reuse (DPR). The advanced water reclamation process employed is resilient and produces purified water of a quality that constantly meets all the required drinking water standards. In addition, non-regulated (emerging) constituents such as micro-pollutants, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and genes are removed to below the limit of detection. Bioassays in combination with chemical footprint analysis provide a further indication regarding the safety of the purified (reclaimed) water, which accounts for approximately 25% of the drinking water supply. Consequently, this source is an essential part of integrated water resource management in Windhoek and has contributed substantially to the city’s social, economic, and environmental development. A multiple barrier approach ensures the highest possible safety levels, which are consistently achieved. Three differing barrier types are employed with non-treatment, treatment, and operational functions. The non-treatment barriers consist of comprehensive source control, the strict separation of domestic and industrial effluents, and the blending of the reclaimed water with treated dam and ground water. The main treatment barriers are comprised by the Gammams Sewage Treatment Works (a nutrient removal plant) and the New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant, an advanced multiple barrier purification system, which is based on ozonation and biological activated carbon filtration (a “non-reverse osmosis process”). One example of an operational barrier is the dosing of powdered activated carbon in the case of inadequate source water quality.
The public acceptance of direct potable reuse is mainly driven by the lack of other affordable alternatives and the fact that since DPR commenced 55 years ago, no health problems related to reclaimed water have been experienced. Other contributory factors are an open information policy, excellent public education practices, and consumer confidence in both the quality management and the advanced water treatment technology used, which after more than 20 years of operation in the current facility remains unchanged.
Abbreviations
- AMR:
-
Antimicrobial resistance
- ARB:
-
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
- ARG:
-
Antibiotic-resistant genes
- BAC:
-
Biological activated carbon
- BOD:
-
Biological oxygen demand
- CEC:
-
Constituent of emerging concern
- CFU:
-
Colony forming units
- COD:
-
Chemical oxygen demand
- CoW:
-
City of Windhoek
- DAF:
-
Dissolved air flotation
- DMF:
-
Dual media filtration
- DOC:
-
Dissolved organic carbon
- DPR:
-
Direct potable reuse
- ermB:
-
Gene which is resistant to streptogramins, macrolides, and lincosamides
- ETP:
-
Effluent treatment plant
- GAC:
-
Granular activated carbon
- HAA:
-
Haloacetic acid
- HPC:
-
Heterotrophic plate count
- IPR:
-
Indirect potable reuse
- LOD:
-
Limit of detection
- LOQ:
-
Limit of quantification
- MBR:
-
Membrane bioreactor
- NDMA:
-
N-nitrosodimethylamine
- NGWRP:
-
New Goreangab water reclamation plant
- nptII:
-
Neomycin phosphotransferase II
- nptIII:
-
Neomycin phosphotransferase III
- PES:
-
Polyether-sulfone
- PFAS:
-
Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances
- PMA:
-
Private Management Agreement
- PPP:
-
Public–private partnership
- RO:
-
Reverse osmosis
- SMX:
-
Sulfamethoxazole
- sul1:
-
Sulfamethoxazole-resistant gene
- TDS:
-
Total dissolved solids
- THM:
-
Trihalomethane
- TOC:
-
Total organic carbon
- UF:
-
Ultrafiltration
- UV:
-
Ultraviolet
- UV254:
-
UV absorbance at 254 nm
- UW:
-
Used water (term with more positive connotations than wastewater)
- UWTP:
-
Used water treatment plant (term with more positive connotations than wastewater treatment plant)
- vanA:
-
Vancomycin-resistant gene
- WINGOC:
-
Windhoek Goreangab Operating Company
- WRP:
-
Water reclamation plant
- WTP:
-
Water treatment plant
- WW:
-
Wastewater (increasingly replaced by UW)
- WWTP:
-
Wastewater treatment plant (increasingly replaced by UWTP)
References
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Windhoek Goreangab Operating Company (2023) Operational data, updated 2023 database
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Lahnsteiner, J., Honer, T., Ashipala, L., Nikodemus, K., Poussade, Y., van Rensburg, P. (2024). Windhoek/Goreangab Direct Potable Water Reuse, Case Study Namibia. In: Lahnsteiner, J. (eds) Handbook of Water and Used Water Purification. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66382-1_170-1
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