Keywords

1 Introduction

Despite the emphasis of higher academic standards and mandated transition services, many students with and without disabilities are leaving school without the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to succeed in postsecondary education and employment environments. In fact, students with disabilities from low-achieving high schools experience higher rates of school dropout, unemployment, and substance abuse, as compared to their non-disabled peers [1]. According to a 2009 report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS-2), 45 percent of youth with disabilities enrolled in some type of postsecondary program in 2009, as compared to 53 percent of youth in the general population [24]. Regarding employment, 53 percent of out of school youth with disabilities were employed, as compared to 66 percent of youth in the general population [24]. For adults with disabilities ages 18 to 64 years living in the community, the employment rate is only 33.9 percent, as compared with a rate of 74.2 percent for individuals without disabilities ages 18 to 64 living in the community [14]. Clearly, many youth and adults are not receiving the support or skills needed to transition to postsecondary education programs and employment opportunities. Preparing individuals for lifelong success in a rapidly changing global economy requires schools to reconsider both what and how educators teach and students learn in the 21st century.

2 Educating All Students in the 21st Century

2.1 Defining 21st Century Skills

The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) identifies the knowledge and skills necessary to support successful student outcomes in the emerging global economy as: (1) a foundation of core academic subject knowledge (e.g., reading, writing, and arithmetic); (2) essential learning and innovation skills (e.g., critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity); (3) life and career skills (e.g., adaptability, self-direction, accountability, and leadership); and, (4) information, media, and technology skills. Positive outcomes are reinforced through 21st century learning environments, professional development, curriculum and instruction, standards, and assessments [26]. A 21st century education encourages educators to: (a) emphasize core subjects while incorporating 21st century themes, tools, and innovation skills; (b) use 21st century tools to develop learning skills in current curricula aligned to current standards; (c) use 21st century assessments to measure 21st century skills; and (d) teach in a 21st century context, using relevant examples and real-world applications to promote learning, comprehension, and student growth. By integrating core subject knowledge with essential learning and innovation skills in a relevant and applied manner, and in coordination with current international, national and state standards, students will graduate better prepared to succeed in college, career pathways, and life [26].

2.2 The Need to Develop 21st Century Skills

The need to develop 21st century skills is critical given the national statistics on educational and employment outcomes of transition-age youth with and without disabilities. The U.S. Department of Education reports that 80 percent of all students and 61 percent of students with disabilities graduate from public high school on time with a regular diploma while 3.3 percent of students in public high schools dropout annually [33]. In postsecondary settings, only 59 percent of first-time, full-time students seeking undergraduate degrees at 4-year institutions in 2006 graduated with a bachelor’s degree within 6 years from that institution, and only 31 percent of first-time, full-time undergraduate students seeking a certificate or associate’s degree at 2-year institutions in 2009 obtained it within 150 percent of the normal time required to do so [21]. Moreover, students with disabilities are far less likely than their nondisabled peers to complete a bachelor’s degree [37], and in 2007-08, only 10.9 percent of students enrolled in postsecondary institutions reported having disability status [22].

In regard to employment, the 2012 Disability Status Report indicates that only 33.5 percent of persons with disabilities were employed as compared to 76.3 percent of persons without disabilities [9]. More recently, the 2013 employment-population ratio for persons with a disability was reported at 17.6 percent while the employment-population ratio for those without a disability was reported at 64 percent [35]. In fact, a substantial disparity may be found for individuals with disabilities pursuing 21st century careers within the emerging STEM fields and industries (i.e., Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). According to the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES), “scientists and engineers with disabilities are more likely than those without disabilities to be unemployed or out of the labor force” [23]. The current data purports that 11 % of the nation’s scientists and engineers 75 years old or younger has a disability [23]. Furthermore, the majority of scientists and engineers in the nation’s workforce were between ages 50 and 75 at the onset of their disability, while less than 30 percent were 19 years or younger at the onset of their disability, and less than 7 % had been disabled at birth [23]. These facts highlight the significance of supporting youth and young adults with disabilities in their pursuit of postsecondary degrees and careers, especially in STEM fields.

3 Policies to Support Positive Transition Outcomes

Mandates set forth in recent disability legislation are encouraging professionals to increase successful transition outcomes for young adults with disabilities. For example, the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) requires school districts to develop postsecondary goals based on the results of individual transition assessments [31]. The Council for Exceptional Children defines transition assessments as an ongoing process for collecting data on an individual’s needs, preferences, and interests as they relate to the demands of current and future working, educational, living, and personal and social environments [29]. For transition assessments to be effective, a variety of tools must be used to gain knowledge of an individual’s strengths, skills and abilities, goals, and needs [28].

The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) of 2014 improves the services provided to job seekers with disabilities and requires states to deliver supported employment services leading to employment for youth with the most significant disabilities. The law is a renewed commitment to prepare and educate a skilled workforce by strengthening a connection between education and career preparation, including partnerships with community and technical colleges [34]. Through WIOA, youth with disabilities will receive extensive pre-employment transition services (e.g., job exploration counseling, work-based learning experiences, job shadowing, internships, and apprenticeships) to obtain and retain competitive, integrated employment [34, 36]. Although policies have been established by the federal government, key stakeholders must practice strategies and interventions to ultimately improve positive transition outcomes for persons with disabilities.

4 Strategies to Support Positive Transition Outcomes

4.1 Technology

Persons with disabilities are less than half as likely to own computers and are about one-quarter as likely to use the Internet when compared with persons without disabilities [3]. Furthermore, technology that was not designed to be accessible to persons with disabilities can create an additional usability barrier. Access to information technology helps individuals improve their technical skills, which supports additional training and preparation for careers within the emerging technology fields. Several studies have used video prompting as a tool to increase functional daily living skills for people with disabilities [30]. One example includes a study conducted by Mechling, Gast & Seid (2009), where students with ASD were taught valuable cooking skills through the usage of a hand-held personal digital assistant (PDA) to provide various prompts to increase independence.

In order to promote positive academic and employment outcomes, students with disabilities must: (1) have access to information technology; (2) be able to use the technology; and (3) encounter a seamless transition in the availability of technologies from K-12 to postsecondary and employment settings [4]. Meeting these conditions would help equip persons with disabilities with essential 21st century skills–skills that not only include information and communications technology (ICT) literacy, but also career, life, and self-determination skills [13]. To promote these student outcomes, institutional structures that support the effective utilization of technology must be integrated into different levels of the educational system.

4.2 Supported Employment

Supported employment can promote opportunities to earn competitive wages, develop meaningful career goals, make social connections with peers, develop relevant problem solving and choice-making skills, and ultimately participate in society [12]. Through employment, youth with significant disabilities can gain increased ability to make choices, solve problems, make decisions, manage self-regulation, and self-advocate [25]. Without self-determination skills, many persons with significant disabilities do not effectively advocate for what they need in the community or the workplace [16]. Ultimately, when individuals with significant disabilities are successfully employed, they become more fully integrated into their communities [20].

Vocational rehabilitation service providers typically champion supported employment as a preferred option for persons with significant disabilities, because it is associated with more sustainable employment at less cost to society [8]. Supported employment models have greater potential to be cost efficient because work supports are faded, or decreased, through time, thereby creating a more independent worker. Using national averages, Cimera (2008) found that supported employment services cost $6,618 annually, whereas sheltered workshop (i.e., facility-based) services cost $19,388—a significant difference of $12,770. Corroborating this finding, Rogan and Rinne (2011) found that sheltered employment services cost the federal government 4 times as much as integrated community employment. Additionally, the ratio of taxpayer investment to outcome makes supported employment more cost-efficient.

4.3 Self-Determination

Numerous researchers have identified indicators that lead to improved post-school outcomes and independence for students with disabilities. For example, students with functional cognitive skills [38], high levels of self-determination [25], and strong academic skills [2] were more likely to experience post-school success. To increase self-determination, persons with disabilities must be able to perform tasks with as much independence as possible; therefore, the assessment process is critical when determining the best transition plan [32]. However, many of the traditional assessment batteries used to create transition plans purport to measure these skills, but it is unclear how these measures are used to inform the transition planning process and which components lead to the most successful outcomes.

To address strategies that improve the delivery of 21st century skills leading to positive transition outcomes for students with disabilities, The Ohio State University Nisonger Center, a University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities (UCEDD), together with national experts, technology specialists, parents, students with disabilities, administrators, and teachers, have developed and tested intervention programs, including a web-based curriculum called EnvisionIT (EIT), an undergraduate and graduate program called Ohio’s STEM Ability Alliance (OSAA), and a college program for students with intellectual disabilities called Transition Options in Postsecondary Settings (TOPS).Footnote 1

5 Effective Interventions for Students with Disabilities

5.1 EnvisionIT

Scaling-Up EnvisionIT: A Model for Teaching 21st Century Skills to Students with Disabilities is a five-year program funded by the United States Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs to disseminate and sustain the EnvisionIT curriculum nationwide. EnvisionIT is an innovative, online, high school transition curriculum that teaches 21st century skills and is aligned to current state, national, and international standards across four key competency areas: (1) English Language Arts; (2) Information and Communications Technology literacy; transition planning and self-determination; and, financial literacy. In prior projects, students with disabilities who completed EnvisionIT scored significantly higher in Information and Communications Technology literacy and transition knowledge as compared to students in control classrooms [17]. Using a knowledge utilization framework, the evidence-based practices obtained through these prior projects are now being applied to the current project. The curriculum has also been subject to national review processes by experts in the field, and the feedback gathered from these reviews has been used to refine and updated the curriculum.

EnvisionIT is designed as a teacher-directed online curriculum that supports the postsecondary transition of students with mild to moderate disabilities, as well as students without disabilities. Currently, the curriculum is being delivered to students in Ohio, Connecticut, New York, and Montana through the Schoology Learning Management System (LMS). Across 12 units, students acquire basic and advanced ICT literacy skills to: (a) utilize the Web for effective research; (b) edit, save, and organize digital documents and presentations; and, (c) complete computer based assessments. For instance, students complete age-appropriate transition assessments online, such as the O*NET Interest Profiler (IP), as well as pre-and post-unit quizzes within the LMS. By analyzing the results of a career inventory (e.g., IP), students are able to select careers that align with their preferences and interests. In order to develop a realistic plan, students then determine what type of postsecondary training or education is necessary, as well as possible jobs and related employment opportunities that may help them develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are required to pursue their preferred career options. Ultimately, each student develops a cumulative product called a Transition Portfolio, which contains measurable, postsecondary goals for training, education, and employment. The Transition Portfolio also includes a career essay, résumé, cover letter, sample job and college applications, an interview with a professional, and a digital presentation to share their research and transition plan with peers, parents, and service providers.

The curriculum also follows Universal Design for Learning practices to support differentiated instruction and alternate assessment design. Digital assessments, though, are built into the LMS, which allows students to practice skills necessary to complete 21st century assessments. Moreover, struggling readers and auditory learners may utilize free screen reader applications offered through Web browsers to support and enhance their learning experience. Group activities in the curriculum also allow students to build their “soft-skills” for interaction, discussion, and problem-solving. At the end of the course, one student stated:

“When this class first started, I thought I wanted to be a school psychologist after college, or at least major in psychology. After researching careers and comparing colleges, my career path has completely changed. After high school, I want to go to Ohio State and major in education with a minor in creative writing. My next steps are visiting more colleges, taking the ACT and the SAT, and applying to colleges. I feel that the goals I have set are going to be very good preparation for my future.”

Students who complete the curriculum have significantly higher levels of academic achievement, goal setting, and career knowledge [17]. Through the Scaling-Up EnvisionIT model, we provide an important and innovative opportunity for schools to teach—and for students to learn—the essential skills and competencies needed to navigate and succeed in the 21st century.

5.2 Ohio’s STEM Ability Alliance

The Increasing Achievement and Transition Outcomes in STEM Professions of Postsecondary Students with Disabilities project was a six-year initiative funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to research and develop strategies to increase academic and employment outcomes for college students with disabilities in STEM fields at partnering institutions in central Ohio. The initiative, Ohio’s STEM Ability Alliance (OSAA) was made up of two quads anchored by The Ohio State University in Columbus, and Wright State University in Dayton. Each quad consisted of the university, a community college, local secondary schools, and business/industry and community partners. Supports and interventions for the students were either delivered or facilitated by Ability Advisors (see Fig. 1), who were the liaison to connect students to the resources needed while simultaneously mentoring the student in self-advocacy and self-determination skills. The supports and interventions developed to enable the students to persist in their STEM major, graduate, and transition to graduate school and/or STEM employment included: (1) Ability Advising; (2) Student Learning Communities (SLC); (3) Mentoring; and, (4) Internships.

Fig. 1.
figure 1

Ability advising model of interactions between advisor, student, and resources (Source: The Ohio State University Nisonger Center. Diversifying the STEM pipeline from college to careers: A replication guide for supporting the transition of postsecondary STEM Students with disabilities, p. 20. Columbus quad replication guide prepared for the Ohio's STEM Ability Alliance (OSAA) project funded by the National Science Foundation, Award Number HRD-0833561. Available online at http://go.osu.edu/osaa)

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A commonality for all students despite disability, age, gender, race, or even STEM major, was revealed in Ability Advising and the SLC when students developed a self-advocacy plan. The self-advocacy plan, supported by meetings with the Ability Advisor, proved to be a critical factor for each student in his/her ability to persist to graduation and employment. Multiple strategies for delivery were employed in the SLC, including online modules hosted within a private social media website. Students unable to attend face-to-face sessions were enabled to use technology to interact with their peers and the facilitator. Activities in the SLC for develo** the self-advocacy plan included problem solving, collaboration, communication, and innovation, to enrich the student’s 21st century skills. Ability Advising sessions supported the work done in the SLC and guided each student to assess, reflect upon and determine his/her: (a) strengths; (b) learning preferences; (c) understanding of their disability; (d) needs for assistive technology and accommodations; (e) identity; (f) future goals; (g) personal and career interests; and, (h) rights in the academic and career environments. Develo** a self-advocacy plan has implications for serving the person with a disability throughout their lifespan. Activities in develo** the self-advocacy plan fostered a positive self-image and identity, empowering the student to overcome anxiety and self-doubt about claiming their rights.

The project served 163 students at the secondary and postsecondary level; 112 students attended the Ohio State University. At the end of the reporting period (2008–2014), 46 of the 112 had graduated; 42 graduates (91.3 percent) acquired degrees in STEM fields. Out of the remaining 66 students, 86.3 percent are persisting in their STEM major. Of the 27 graduates on whom we were able to confirm follow-up data, 23 (85.2 percent) have transitioned to STEM employment or STEM graduate school.

The project contributed to the research literature on recruitment and retention of STEM students with disabilities in postsecondary education and their successful transition into the STEM workforce. The benefits of initiatives such as OSAA and EnvisionIT for adolescents and adults with disabilities with and without disabilities should be apparent, especially in light of the low percentage of student input in the IEP process in urban settings [39]. It would be beneficial for secondary students with disabilities to develop a self-advocacy plan before graduation to support the successful transition to training, education, or immediate employment, where the student must begin advocating for him or herself.

5.3 Transition Options in Postsecondary Settings

The emergence of postsecondary programs for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) is increasing due to federal funding, legislation and most importantly, advocacy efforts of families, service providers and persons with IDD themselves. The Transition Options in Postsecondary Settings (TOPS) program was created at The Ohio State University in order to maximize adult life outcomes for individuals with IDD and those with other developmental disabilities (DD), including individuals with multiple disabilities. This is accomplished by providing college-aged students with IDD the opportunity to participate in college courses, residential living, internships and employment. The TOPS program includes a 2-year and a 4-year option, both designed to blend academics and employment opportunities that match students’ desired employment goals. This comprehensive program provides technology training so students gain 21st century skills including: (a) the use of learning management systems; (b) video modeling and prompting programs delivered through tablets, iPads or iPod Touches as a support for job tasks; and, (c) Google calendar apps to manage work, class and social schedules.

In customized employment models, access to technology as an accommodation or support facilitates employment success [15] and potentially reduces the cost of job coaching. Though supported employment is more economical to sustain than sheltered workshops, it still can be costly to provide. Yet, persons with IDD need comprehensive supports to succeed in the workplace. Job coaches in supported employment settings can and do provide these supports; however, the cost of a consistently present job coach is significant, and full-time job coaching is not a sustainable model in long-term employment [8].

In this digital age, one alternative showing promise is the use of technology, specifically mobile and multimedia tools to help youth with IDD communicate and perform tasks [15]. Researchers have shown the potential benefit of video prompting [18], video modeling [5], picture prompting [6], visual/auditory schedules [10], and video instruction [11] to train, reinforce, and guide individuals with IDD to successfully complete work tasks. However, more research on this topic is needed to meet that need.

6 Conclusion

Legislators, educators, and business leaders recognize the importance of preparing all students with 21st century skills that enable an increasingly diverse student population to transition from school to college and into career settings. The costs of supporting persons with disabilities who want to work but are not provided the skills and supports needed to successfully engage in the labor market are rising and must be curbed. Providing education and workforce preparation so students with and without disabilities have the opportunity to become productive members of the workforce is a more cost-effective solution and must continue to be a priority for our nation. Leaders across governmental agencies and business enterprises must continue to invest in innovative programs to develop, disseminate, and sustain effective models to deliver 21st century skills to students today and in the future. Together, we must assure that all of our citizens have access to the technological tools and online curricula to develop the 21st century skills needed to gain and maintain employment in this increasingly global and high-tech world.