Abstract
This chapter explicates the functioning capabilities of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) as appertains to their use in war, historical development, recognition in treaties and the practice of States. It examines the contemporary and potential uses of UAS, emerging from their increase in the civil airspace. It further provides analyses of their use in environmental and agricultural monitoring, surveillance, and security operations; as well as an examination of their nexus with and impact on safety and security concerns. Other aspects that are covered include matters of privacy, security of users and civilians in general. The chapter closes with a discussion of efforts made to regulate the unmanned aircraft system, and the inherent challenges in integrating UAS into civil aviation.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Blom (2010), p. 65.
- 2.
Bart (2012), p. 7.
- 3.
Gundlach (2012), p. 43.
- 4.
HaiYang and YangQuan (2010), p. 54.
- 5.
Ellen R et al. “An investigation into the next generation avionics architecture for the QUT UAV project” http://eprints.qut.edu.au (Date of use: 16 July 2023).
- 6.
Ellen et al. http://eprints.qut.edu.au (Date of use: 16 July2023).
- 7.
Bilbao (2008), p. 2.
- 8.
Austin et al. (2010), p. 6.
- 9.
Austin et al. (2010), p. 6.
- 10.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 7.
- 11.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 10.
- 12.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 10.
- 13.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 10.
- 14.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 14.
- 15.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 19.
- 16.
Nonami et al. (2010), p. 15.
- 17.
De Garmo (2010), p. 11.
- 18.
Fernández (2010), p. 67.
- 19.
https://www.caa.co.uk (Date of use: 23 July 2023).
- 20.
Gupta (2013), p. 1650.
- 21.
Fernández (2010), p. 67.
- 22.
Adam et al. (2012), pp. 1671–1692.
- 23.
Section 2.2.7 of ICAO Manual on Remotely Piloted Aircraft System of 2015.
- 24.
Arjomandi M “Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles” http://www.academia.edu/2055673/ClassificationofUnmannedAerialVehicles2007 (Date of use: 10 August 2023).
- 25.
Jessica et al. (2008), p. 6555.
- 26.
UAS Manufactured by Teledyne Ryan.
- 27.
UAS Manufactured by Lockheed Martin.
- 28.
UAS Manufactured by General Atomic.
- 29.
UAS Manufactured by Northrop Grunman.
- 30.
Shawn and Renaud (2002), p. 668.
- 31.
Shawn and Renaud (2002), p. 668.
- 32.
The UAS was manufactured by General Atomic.
- 33.
**ao-yd (2006), p. 4.
- 34.
Adam et al. (2012), p. 1614.
- 35.
De Garmo (2010), p. 11.
- 36.
Thomas et al. (2016), p. 3292.
- 37.
Thomas et al. (2016), p. 3292.
- 38.
Thomas et al. (2016), p. 3292.
- 39.
Adam et al. (2012), p. 1614.
- 40.
Adam et al. (2012), p. 1614.
- 41.
Peterson (2006), pp. 522–551.
- 42.
De Garmo (2010), p. 11.
- 43.
De Garmo (2010), p. 11.
- 44.
De Garmo (2010), p. 11.
- 45.
Freeman (1956), pp. 366–387.
- 46.
De Garmo (2010), p. 12.
- 47.
J Thomas et al. (2006) (25th AIAA Aerodynamic Measurement Technology and Ground Testing Conference), p. 3307. An Ounce square foot is recorded as oz.ft2. For conversation purposes, 1 g.m2 = 0.379686 oz.ft2.
- 48.
- 49.
Valavanism and Vachtsevanos (2015), p. 102.
- 50.
http://www.nasa.gov (Date of use: 9 August 2023).
- 51.
http://de.calameo.com (Date of use: 9 August 2023).
- 52.
http://de.calameo.com (Date of use: 9 August 2023).
- 53.
http://de.calameo.com (Date of use: 9 August 2023).
- 54.
De Garmo (2010), p. 4.
- 55.
De Garmo (2010), p. 3.
- 56.
De Garmo (2010), p. 12.
- 57.
De Garmo (2010), p. 12.
- 58.
http://www.hiller.org/ (Date of use: 19 July 2023).
- 59.
De Garmo (2010), p. 12.
- 60.
De Garmo (2010), p. 1.
- 61.
De Garmo (2010), p. 1.
- 62.
Klaus (2013), p. 3761.
- 63.
Wright (1916), pp. 100–106.
- 64.
Wright (1916), p. 104.
- 65.
- 66.
- 67.
Michaelides-Mateou et al. (2014), p. 113.
- 68.
Keane and Carr (2013), pp. 558–571.
- 69.
Cole (2012), pp. 558–571.
- 70.
Cole (2012), p. 569.
- 71.
Fahrney and RADM (1980), pp. 54–60. Cruise missile refers to a one-way lethal munitions designed to strike specific targets.
- 72.
Cole (2012), p. 564.
- 73.
Koldaev and Sokut (2005), pp. 100–104.
- 74.
Koldaev and Sokut (2005), p. 100.
- 75.
Koldaev and Sokut (2005), p. 100.
- 76.
Judson J “Future Unmanned aircraft to do the ‘dull’ and ‘dangerous’ work” 2018-3-26 Defence News. https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/global-force-symposium/2018/03/26/future-unmanned-aircraft-to-do-the-dull-and-dangerous-work/ (Date of use: 22 August 2023).
- 77.
Office of the Secretary of Defense “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Roadmap 2002-2027” http://oai.dtic.mil/oai (Date of use: 18 August 2023).
- 78.
Gupta (2013), p. 1646.
- 79.
Gupta (2013), p. 1646.
- 80.
Padgett T “Using Drones in the Drug War” 2012-6-8 Time http://www.time.com (Date of use: 15 July 2023).
- 81.
Haddal and Gertler (2010), p. 8.
- 82.
Haddal and Gertler (2010), p. 8.
- 83.
Customs and Border Protection Agency “US Customs and Border Protection UAS Overview” http://www.cbp.gov (Date of use: 4 August 2023).
- 84.
Haddal and Gertler (2010), p. 88.
- 85.
Haddal and Gertler (2010), p. 88.
- 86.
Carr EB “Unmanned aerial vehicles: Examining the safety, security, privacy and regulatory issues of integration into U.S Airspace” https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog892/sites/www.e-education.psu.edu.geog892/files/sp-Drones-long-paper.pdf (Date of use: 14 August 2023).
- 87.
De Garmo (2010), p. 11.
- 88.
UAV Markets Space Consulting “UAV Agriculture and Wildlife Management” http://www.uavm.com (Date of use: 23 July 2023).
- 89.
Kenzo (2007), p. 124.
- 90.
Jensen et al. (2011), pp. 139–146.
- 91.
Johnson (2003), pp. 1–3.
- 92.
ResearchGate “UAV collaborative and UAV applications: fire management - project overview” http://www.uav-applications.org/projects (Date of use: 15 August 2023).
- 93.
Caumont A “Start-Up” 28-11-2016 Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com (Date of use: 23 August 2023).
- 94.
Hagenauer B “Ikhana UAV gives NASA new science and technology capabilities” 2007-3-29 NASA Press Release http://www.nasa.gov (Date of use: 2 August 2023).
- 95.
Skrzypietz (2012), p. 18.
- 96.
Reuder (2009), p. 22.
- 97.
Ali Mazrui is academic professor, and political writer on African and Islamic studies and North-South Relations. 1933–2014.
- 98.
Efron (2015), p. 5.
- 99.
Gonzales and Harting (2014), p. 23.
- 100.
Gonzales and Harting (2014), p. 61.
- 101.
National Air and Space Museum “Drones Doing Dirt and Dangerous Jobs” https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/drones-doing-dirty-and-dangerous-jobs (Date of use: 22 August 2023).
- 102.
Gupta (2013), p. 1654.
- 103.
Cole (2012), p. 558.
- 104.
Judson https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/global-force-symposium/2018/03/26/future-unmanned-aircraft-to-do-the-dull-and-dangerous-work/ (Date of use: 22 July 2023).
- 105.
Judson https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/global-force-symposium/2018/03/26/future-unmanned-aircraft-to-do-the-dull-and-dangerous-work/ (Date of use: 22 July 2023).
- 106.
O’Connell (2010), p. 1.
- 107.
Mika P (UAS Yearbook – UAS: The Global Perspective 2009/2010), p. 137.
- 108.
O’Connell (2010), p. 2.
- 109.
Petcoff RP “Global Hawk Collects Reconnaissance Data During Haiti Relief Efforts” 2010-1-15 US Air Force Press Release https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/118014/global-hawk-collects-reconnaissance-data-during-haiti-relief-efforts/ (Date of use: 4 August 2023).
- 110.
Petcoff https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/118014/global-hawk-collects-reconnaissance-data-during-haiti-relief-efforts/ (Date of use: 4 August 2023).
- 111.
Odido and Madara (2013), p. 107.
- 112.
Odido and Madara (2013), p. 107.
- 113.
Odido and Madara (2013), p. 107.
- 114.
Kameri-Mbote and Muriungi (2017), pp. 159–169.
- 115.
Walter (2017), p. 5.
- 116.
- 117.
Phillip (2015), pp. 1–49.
- 118.
Phillip (2015), p. 41.
- 119.
Rawich (2009), p. 600.
- 120.
Marshall (2009), p. 105.
- 121.
Baseline Equipment Company “How to use GPS or Oland surveying” https://www.baselineequipment.com/gps-land-surveying-equipment (Date of use: 19 August 2023).
- 122.
Finn and Wright (2012), pp. 184–194.
- 123.
Cho (2014), pp. 38–56.
- 124.
Stansbury and Manan (2008), p. 8.
- 125.
Sharma (2016), p. 2.
- 126.
Sharma (2016), p. 2.
- 127.
Levush (2016), p. 86.
- 128.
Levush (2016), p. 86.
- 129.
Klaus (2013), p. 4.
- 130.
Klaus (2013), p. 6.
- 131.
Geyer et al. (2008), p. 9.
- 132.
GNSS “Transponder” http://www.lfv.se/ans/card (Date of use: 4 August 2023).
- 133.
GNSS http://www.lfv.se/ans/card (Date of use: 4 August 2023).
- 134.
Klaus (2013), p. 6.
- 135.
Spriesterbach et al. (2013), pp. 572–583.
- 136.
Klaus (2013), p. 6.
- 137.
Klaus (2013), p. 6.
- 138.
EUROCONTROL “Specifications for the Use of Military Unmanned Aerial Vehicles as Operational Air Traffic Outside Segregated Airspace” https://www.eurocontrol.int/publication/eurocontrol-specifications-use-military-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-operational-air (Date of use: 30 August 2023).
- 139.
EUROCONTROL https://www.eurocontrol.int/publication/eurocontrol-specifications-use-military-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-operational-air (Date of use: 30 August 2023).
- 140.
Milde (2008), p. 69. Milde takes a position that the rules of air may not be legally bonding but have consequences which make them binding in practice.
- 141.
See Annex IV to the European Commission (EC) Regulation on Common Rules in the Field of Civil Aviation 216 of 2008, Articles 3(a) and (4).
- 142.
https://www.icao.int/Meetings/anconf12/Document%20Archive/an02_cons%5B1%5D.pdf (Date of use: 6 August 2023).
- 143.
Havel and Mulligan (2016), p. 107.
- 144.
Gupta (2013), p. 1645.
- 145.
Warwick G “Civil UAVs Need GPS anti-spoofing, but who pays. Aviation week” http://www.aviationweek.com (Date of use: 4 August 2023).
- 146.
Kine (2008), p. 19.
- 147.
Milde (2008), p. 207.
- 148.
Milde (2008), p. 92.
- 149.
Franke et al. (2005), p. 1.
- 150.
Sándor (2019), pp. 96–105.
- 151.
Sándor (2019), p. 96.
- 152.
Prevot et al. (2016), p. 3292.
- 153.
Zhi et al. (2020), pp. 95–101.
- 154.
INFOSEC “Beware of the drone! Privacy and security issues with drones” https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/privacy-and-security-issues-with-drones/#gref (Date of use: 23 July 2023).
- 155.
UN General Assembly Resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948.
- 156.
UN General Resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976).
- 157.
Rodriguez K, Hernandez V and Jara C “The Inter-American Legal Analysis: The 13 Principles and the Inter-American System for the Protection of Human Rights” https://necessaryandproportionate.org/americas-legal-analysis (Date of use: 22 August 2023).
- 158.
The Africa Union (AU) Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women of 21 July 2003 (entered into force 2005) (hereinafter referred to as the Maputo Protocol), Article 4(m).
- 159.
Mabika V “Privacy and Personal Data Protection Guidelines for Africa” 2018-8 ITU https://www.itu.int/en/ITUD/CapacityBuilding/Documents/IG_workshop_August2018Presentations/Session%207_Verengai%20Mabika.pdf (Date of use: 30 July 2023).
- 160.
Graham and Georges (2014), pp. 19–21.
- 161.
The SADC Model Law on Data Protection of 2010.
- 162.
https://www.statewatch.org/news/2013/mar/ecowas-dp-act.pdf (Date of use: 2 August 2023).
- 163.
ECOWAS Supplementary Act of 2007, Article 19(1).
- 164.
The Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community of 1999 (entered into force 2000) (hereinafter referred to as the EAC Treaty 1999), Articles 6(d) and 7(2).
- 165.
Media Council of Tanzania an Others v Attorney General of the Republic of Tanzania App 5 EA 2019 (EACJ).
- 166.
Marcontelli D and Douglas S. https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliverwyman/2018/09/10/why-the-use-of-drones-still-faces-big-regulatory-hurdles/#529c17ea1c0d (Date of use: 5 August 2023).
- 167.
Barnhart et al. (2012), pp. 135–155.
References
Books
Austin R, Wiley J, Chichester S (2010) Unmanned aircraft systems UAVs design, development. Wiley Publishe
Bart E (2012) Pilotless drones: background and considerations for congress regarding unmanned aircraft operations in the national airspace system CRS Reports for Congress
Blom JD (2010) Unmanned aerial systems: a historical perspective. Combat Studies Institute Press
Cole C (2012) Drone wars briefing. Drone Wars UK Oxford
De Garmo MT (2010) Issues concerning integration of unmanned aerial vehicles in civil airspace. The MITRE center for advanced aviation system development Mclean Virginia
Gonzales D, Harting S (2014) Designing unmanned systems with greater autonomy using a federated, partially open systems architecture approach. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica California
Gundlach J (2012) Designing unmanned aircraft systems: a comprehensive approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Haddal CC, Gertler J (2010) Homeland security: unmanned aerial vehicles and border surveillance. Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service
Kine TS (2008) Enhancing combat survivability of existing unmanned aircraft systems. Naval Postgraduate School Monterey CA
Levush R (2016) Regulation of drones: comparative summary. The Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Center, Washington DC
Milde M (2008) International air law and ICAO. Eleven International Publishing
Nonami K et al (2010) Autonomous flying Robots, unmanned aerial vehicles and micro aerial vehicles. Springer, New York
O’Connell ME (2010) Drones under International Law. International Debate Series Whitney Harris World Law Institute
Suraj G et al (2013) Review of Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS), Vol. 2. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering and Technology (IJARCET)
Valavanism KP, Vachtsevanos GJ (2015) Military and civilian unmanned aircraft: handbook of unmanned aerial vehicles. Springer, Dordrecht
Journal Articles
Adam W et al (2012) Unmanned aircraft systems in remote sensing and scientific research: classification and considerations of use. Remote Sensing, 1671–1692
Barnhart C et al (2012) Demand and capacity management in air transportation. EURO J Transp Logist, 135–155
Bilbao J (2008) How to design an unmanned aerial vehicle with great efficiency in the use of existing resources. Int J Comput, 442–451
Cho Y (2014) Lost in debate: the safety of domestic unmanned aircraft systems’. J Strategic Secur, 38–56
Finn RL, Wright D (2012) Unmanned aircraft systems: surveillance, ethics and privacy in civil applications. Comput Law Secur Rev, 184–194
Freeman NC (1956) On the theory of hypersonic flow past plane and axially symmetric bluff bodies. J Fluid Mech, 366–387
Geyer C, Singh C, Chamberlain L (2008) Avoiding collisions between aircraft: State of the art and requirements for UAVs operating in civilian airspace. Carnegie Mellon University, p 9
Graham G, Georges M (2014) African regional privacy instruments: Their effects on harmonization. Privacy Laws and Business International Report, 19–21
Gupta SG, Gonge M, Jawadhiya P (2013) Review of unmanned aircraft system. Int J Adv Res Comput Eng Technol, 1646
HaiYang C, YangQuan C (2010) Autopilots for small unmanned aerial vehicles: a survey. Int J Control Automat Syst, 36–44
Havel BF, Mulligan JQ (2016) Unmanned aircraft systems: a challenge to global regulators. DePaul Law Rev, 107
Jensen TA et al (2011) The use of an unmanned aerial vehicle as a remote sensing platform in agriculture. Aust J Multi-Discipl Eng, 139–146
Jessica H et al (2008) Flying qualities specifications and design standards for unmanned air vehicles. Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference and Exhibit, 6555
Kameri-Mbote P, Muriungi M (2017) Potential contribution of drones to reliability of Kenya’s land information system. Afr J Inf Commun, 159–169
Keane JF, Carr SS (2013) A brief history of early unmanned aircraft. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, 558–571
Kenzo N (2007) Prospect and recent research and development for civil use autonomous unmanned aircraft as UAV and MAV. J Syst Design Dyn, 120–128
Koldaev A, Sokut S (2005) Russia military conservatism in relation to industry. Syst Glob Persp, 100–104
Marshall D (2009) Unmanned aerial systems and international civil aviation organization regulations. North Dakota Law Rev 85:693
Michaelides-Mateou S et al (2014) Flying into the future with UAVs: the Jetstrea Flight. Annals Air Space Law, 113
Odido D, Madara S (2013) Emerging technologies: use of unmanned aerial systems in the realization of Vision 2030 goals in the counties. Int J Appl Sci Technol, 107
Peterson ME (2006) UAV and the current and future regulatory construct for integration into the national airspace system. J Air Law Commer, 522–551
Rawich TM (2009) Integration of unmanned aerial vehicles into the national airspace. North Dakota Law Rev 85:597–622
Sándor Z (2019) Challenges caused by the unmanned aerial vehicle in the air traffic management. Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering, 96–105
Sharma RS (2016) Investigation into unmanned aircraft system incidents in the National Airspace System. Int J Aviat Aeronaut Aerosp, 2
Skrzypietz J (2012) Unmanned aircraft systems for civilian missions BIGS policy paper, 18
Spriesterbach T et al (2013) Unmanned aircraft system airspace integration in the national airspace using a ground-based sense and avoid system. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, 572–583
Suraj GG, Ghonge MM, Jawandhiya M (2013) Review of unmanned aircraft system (UAS). Int J Adv Res Comput Eng Technol, 1646
Walter V (2017) Small unmanned aerial system map** versus conventional methods. CTAWP, 5
Wright W (1916) The Wright Brothers’ Aeroplane. Aeronaut J, 100–106
**ao-yd HU (2006) Development of high-altitude long endurance UAV propulsion technology. Gas Turbine Exp Res, 4
Zhi Y et al (2020) Security and privacy issues of UAV: a survey. Mobile Netw Appl, 95–101
Thesis and Dissertations
Efron S (2015) The use of unmanned aerial systems for agriculture in Africa can it fly. PhD Dissertation Pardee Rand Graduate School
Fernández EG (2010) Management System for Unmanned Aircraft System. Masters thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
Klaus RA (2013) Development of a Sense and Avoid System for Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems. MS Thesis Brigham Young University
Phillip FB (2015) Unmanned aerial systems for surveying and map**: cost comparison of UAS versus traditional methods of data acquisition. Masters dissertation University of Southern California
Workshops and Conference Papers
Fahrney DS, RADM U (1980) The Birth of Guided Missiles. Paper presented at Conference of US Naval Institute December 1980
Franke et al (2005) Inverting the operator/vehicle ratio: approaches to next generation UAV command and control. Paper presented to the Confernece of AUVSI Unmanned Systems North America 2005
Johnson LS (2003) Collection of ultra-high spatial and spectral resolution image data over California vineyards with a small UAV. Paper presented to the International Symposium on Remote Sensing of the Environment. Honolulu 2003
Prevot et al (2016) UAS traffic management (UTM) concept of operations to safely enable low altitude flight operations. Paper presented to the 16th AIAA Confernece on Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference 2016
Reuder J (2009) UAS. In: Atmospheric research: reality visions challenges. Paper presented at the 17th UAVNet Workshop Brussels 12 October 2009
Shawn G, Renaud J (2002) Optimized unmanned aerial vehicle with wing morphing for extended range and endurance. Paper presented to Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization 2002
UAS traffic management (UTM) concept of operations to safely enable low altitude flight operations (2016) Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Traffic Management (UTM). 16th AIAA Conference on Aviation Technology Integration and Operations Conference 3 June 2016
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wanyonyi Rodgers, M. (2024). Abilities of UAS, Historical Expansion and Integration Challenges into Civil Aviation. In: The Law Regulating Unmanned Aircraft Systems in the United States, South Africa and Kenya . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49927-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49927-2_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-49926-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-49927-2
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)