Development of Modern Meteorology

Abstract

Modern meteorology relies on a wide array of sophisticated and expensive technical instruments that are utilized daily. Just as thermometers and barometers served as fundamental measuring tools during the emergence of quantitative meteorology in the seventeenth century, today’s basic instruments include meteorological radars and satellites. The advent of the first meteorological radar took place in 1942, followed by the launch of the initial meteorological satellite in 1960. A radar is an electronic device that emits narrow beams of short radio wave pulses (electromagnetic waves). It operates on the well-known Doppler effect, a principle discovered by Austrian scientist Christian Doppler in 1842. Radars incorporating this technology are known as Doppler radars and provide valuable information on wind speed in addition to the data. Nowadays, Doppler radars are predominantly used instead of conventional radars. Notable figures in radar meteorology development include David Atlas (1924–2015), Louis Joseph Battan (1923–1986), and Marshall. LIDAR (light detection and ranging) is another remote measurement device extensively employed in meteorology. It emits laser light at ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared wavelengths. Doppler lidars, which operate within the range of 0.3 μm to 10 μm, receive scattered laser radiation from various suspended atmospheric particles such as sea salt, haze, smoke, and water droplets.

Weather satellites play a crucial role in providing valuable information on global weather systems, their location, and characteristics. The launch of the first non-meteorological satellite took place in Russia in 1957, marking the beginning of satellite-based observations. Geostationary satellites are positioned in the equatorial plane, approximately 36,000 km above the Earth. Despite orbiting the planet, they remain fixed over the same area continuously. On the other hand, polar-orbiting satellites traverse the Earth in slightly tilted planes, earning them the name “polar-orbiting satellites.” Orbiting at an altitude of 870 km, these satellites complete 14 orbits in a 24-h period. Currently, a joint initiative between the American NOAA agency (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and the EUMETSAT agency (European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites) oversees the operation of five active polar-orbiting meteorological satellites. Russia has also contributed to this field with the launch of the Meteor-M N2 satellites in 2014 and the Meteor-M N2-2 satellite in 2019, which belong to the long-running Meteor series that began in 1969. In 1978, the European Space Agency (ESA) introduced its first geostationary meteorological satellite, Meteosat 1. Recently, the launch of Meteosat Third Generation Imager-1 (MTG-I1) on an Ariane 5 rocket in December 2022 marked the inception of a new generation of satellites set to revolutionize weather forecasting in Europe.

This chapter delves into the measurement techniques employed to assess air pollution, which has a significant impact on both weather and climate. It then shifts its focus toward the examination of aerosol particles, modern theoretical meteorology, climate variability, climate change, and coupled atmospheric-ocean dynamics. Additionally, the chapter discusses contemporary weather forecasting, spanning from small-scale to global-scale predictions. It provides insights into the development of multi-hazard early warning systems, advanced weather information accessible through smartphones, and innovative tools for TV weather broadcasting. Furthermore, the chapter offers a glimpse into future perspectives, exploring the integration of weather forecasting with artificial intelligence and the upcoming era of the quantum weather forecast.